-Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson and Thomas Reid are some of the most important figures of the Scottish Enlightenment.

-The leading names of the French Enlightenment are Condillac, Diderot, D’Alembert, Helvetius, Turgot and Voltaire. 

The state’s sovereignty that ensures the unity and integrity of the political society is the foundation that makes the state as it is. Sovereignty is an absolute and continuous power:

Here are three principles of sovereignty for Bodin as given below.

1. Sovereignty is continuous because beyond the changing governments, the society remains the same. The continuity of sovereignty results from the idea of continuity of political society.

2. The continuous power makes law for the subjects, changes the law, makes the new one. The sovereign governor is not subject to the law.

3. Sovereignty, above all, is the power to make laws for everyone generally, and specifically and to change laws.

Therefore, the correct option is A.

What Utopia is mainly concerned with is the happiness of people. According to More, happiness is not a singular thing. Happiness has a collective characteristic. The way to reach happiness is through implementing the equality principle. According to More, equality cannot be ensured in a state where property is monopolized and absolute. Thus, eliminating the ownership of property is the only way to distribute the wealth of the country equally and fairly and to make people happy (Ağaoğulları et al., 2016).

Al-Mawardi lists all of the above except (a) as qualities a caliph-to-be must possess.

According to the principles of sovereignty for Bodin, the continuous power makes law for the subjects, changes the law, makes the new one. The sovereign governor is not subject to the law.

Here are three principles of sovereignty for Bodin as given below.
1. Sovereignty is continuous because beyond the changing governments, the society remains the same. The continuity of sovereignty results from the idea of continuity of political society.
2. The continuous power makes law for the subjects, changes the law, makes the new one. The sovereign governor is not subject to the law.
3. Sovereignty, above all, is the power to make laws for everyone generally, and specifically and to change laws (Göze, 2017: 141).

Bodin’s preference for the best form of government is monarchy. Bodin bases his preference for monarchy on three basic reasons.

1. By stating that all-natural laws lead us to monarchy, he claims that monarchy is the most appropriate form of state to nature.

2. He expresses that the talented people in the country could come into prominence only in the monarchy.

3. He asserts that the fact that sovereignty that is absolute, indivisible and continuous, can only take place in the form of monarchy.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

Merit-focused inequalities can be seen as “natural” and fair inequalities. But this perspective is also criticised, due to fact that those merits are gained within a social environment, which is not equal. Thus inequalities that are based on natural distribution of merits cannot be fair.

All are Machiavelli’s views of a ruler/prince.

It suggests that all social arrangements are formed on the ground of economic relations 

He does not argue that the consciousness of human determine their existence 

People are pupils of economic power or structure

The real driving force of change is only technology or economic systems

The difference between the utilitarian and libertarian accounts of social justice is based on the priorities of each conception. Libertarianism highlights the importance of certain inalienable rights of individual whilst utilitarianism attaches priority to the aggregative interests of society with a perspective putting the individuals’ rights at the second row.

However, when we look at the multidimensionality of the idea of justice, we notice that it has at the top two main dimensions that should not be overlooked. The first is the “justice as criminal” and the second is “justice as social”. While the former one usually focuses on juridical arrangements and their implementations, the latter one mostly focuses on issues related to distribution such as distribution of power, resources, rights and/or entitlements, and income as well as ethical justifications of how distribution of these goods ought to be conducted. Therefore, the latter one is frequently referred as “justice beyond the courtroom”.

It can be noticed that this philosophy had nothing to do with society. It was a kind of internal transcendentalism and a form of monkhood. However, it is still a crucial cornerstone in terms of development of the modern egalitarian political
thoughts. This is because of the fact that human beings first time in the course of human history demonstrated a collective uprising with the Cynics achievement of raising awareness against to the non-egalitarian life style.

By 1500 the population in most areas of Europe was increasing after two centuries of decline or stagnation. The bonds of commerce within Europe tightened, and the “wheels of commerce” (in the phrase of the 20th century French historian Fernand Braudel) spun ever faster. The great geographic discoveries then in process were integrating Europe into a world economic system. New commodities, many of them imported from recently discovered lands, enriched material life. Not only trade but also the production of goods increased as a result of new ways of organizing production. Merchants, entrepreneurs, and bankers accumulated and manipulated capital in unprecedented volume. Most historians locate in the 16th century the beginning, or at least the maturing, of Western capitalism.

Bodin’s preference for the best form of government is monarchy. Bodin bases his preference for monarchy on three basic reasons.
1. By stating that all-natural laws lead us to monarchy, he claims that monarchy is the most appropriate form of state to nature.
2. He expresses that the talented people in the country could come into prominence only in the monarchy.
3. He asserts that the fact that sovereignty that is absolute, indivisible and continuous, can only take place in the form of monarchy.

Technology

In line with the definition that Michael Young provided in his famous work, namely The Rise of the Meritocracy (1958), some define merit as “intelligence and effort”. Drawing on a meritocratic perspective, the libertarian model of social justice claims that inequalities are legitimate if they are outcomes of differences based on merit.

Empiricism is a philosophical movement advocating that the only source of knowledge is experimentation and observation. Empiricism finds its best explanation in John Locke’s “tabula rasa” statement. According to him, when born, the human mind is like a “blank state”