Public Policy Actors

The process of making public policies involves several stages, including identifying the problem, creating the policy, implementing it, and evaluating it.

The three main headings under which actors involved in the policymaking process are considered are official actors, unofficial actors, and international actors.

Official actors, including parliamentarians, executives, administrators, and judiciary members, exercise legitimate authority derived from the constitution and laws within the institutional environment of the policy process. They primarily wield powers related to problem identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, implementation, and monitoring/evaluation stages of the public policy process.

In Türkiye, the Grand National Assembly holds legislative power and consists of six hundred members elected by general vote every five years. Its main functions in the public policy process include proposing and approving laws, identifying problems, setting the agenda, formulating policy solutions, adopting action plans, discussing citizens' needs or problems, making laws, and overseeing the executive branch through political control measures such as parliamentary inquiry, general debate, parliamentary investigation, and written questionnaires.

Some of the duties and authorities of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye include enacting, amending, and repealing laws; discussing and approving budget and final account law proposals; deciding on the printing of money and the declaration of war; approving international agreements; deciding on general and special amnesty; and using the powers and fulfilling the duties specified in other constitution articles.

The primary role of the government in the public policy process is to determine and implement public policies. It directly influences legislative activities, especially when it holds a superior majority in parliament, allowing it to significantly impact legislative activities and effectively implement desired public policies.

In 2017, Türkiye transitioned from a parliamentary system to a Presidential Government System through a referendum. After the June 24, 2018, elections, the presidential system began to be implemented, leading to a restructuring of the central government. In this context, significant changes were made in the actors involved in the public policymaking process. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers were abolished, and new units such as policy boards and offices were established. The central government, under the president, now includes policy boards, offices, ministries, and affiliated organizations. Additionally, vice presidents, directly appointed by the president, play a role in this system. New policy boards, responsible for various policy areas, were introduced, expanding the range of actors involved in the public policy process.

Policy boards, under the Presidential Government System in Türkiye, work directly with the president to analyze policies, offer solutions to relevant issues, and develop strategy and policy proposals. They provide information, suggestions, and opinions on decisions and policies, conduct demand, need, and impact analysis, and organize meetings with various stakeholders to obtain feedback. On the other hand, offices, established under the Presidency with legal and financial autonomy, such as the Digital Transformation Office, the Human Resources Office, the Investment Office, and the Finance Office, provide preliminary work and data for creating public policies. They play roles in specific areas like digital transformation, human resources management, investment, and finance, contributing to the policymaking process with their specialized functions.

The public bureaucracy plays a crucial role in creating and implementing public policies as an administrative tool used by the government. It assists in identifying problems, formulating policy, providing recommendations, opinions, or analysis, and executing policies. Bureaucrats are influential actors throughout all stages of the public policy process, from agenda-setting to policy implementation. Their involvement in policy formulation and implementation ensures effective decision-making and contributes to the successful implementation of policies. Street-level bureaucrats, in particular, who directly interact with citizens, play a critical role in expressing citizens' demands and influencing policy development and implementation. The perspective of bureaucrats, especially during policy implementation, significantly impacts the success or failure of policies, as seen in examples like vaccination policies implemented after the COVID-19 outbreak. Overall, bureaucrats are considered effective actors in all stages of the public policy analysis process, contributing to policy consideration, formulation, and implementation.

In the public policy process, particularly in Türkiye, the judiciary plays a crucial role in scrutinizing the compliance of public policies with laws and the constitution. The judiciary, including institutions like the Constitutional Court, the Council of State, the Regional Administrative Courts, and the Administrative Courts, ensures that decisions made by the legislature or executive adhere to legal regulations such as the constitution and laws. The judiciary's scrutiny is essential for upholding the rule of law state, as decisions by the legislature or executive must be within the framework of the law. The Constitutional Court, specifically, examines the conformity of laws, presidential decrees, and the Parliament’s Internal Regulations with the constitution and can declare policies unconstitutional, thereby affecting their implementation. Similarly, decisions by the Court of Cassation and the Council of State impact the implementation of public policy, as they review appeals against administrative decisions and provide opinions on administrative law issues. Positive or negative decisions by the judiciary can significantly influence the course of public policy by either allowing policies to proceed or suspending them if they are found to be unconstitutional or in violation of laws.

Non-state actors, specifically unofficial actors, play essential roles in the policy process by providing information, exerting expert pressure, and offering important ideas for converting decision-making processes into policies that meet societal expectations. Although unofficial actors do not possess legal enforcement power, they contribute significantly to the policy process by influencing decision-making and policy formulation. These unofficial actors, which include political parties, citizens, civil society organizations, interest groups, and think tanks, play crucial roles in shaping public policies by offering diverse perspectives and advocating for specific interests and agendas.

Political parties play essential functions and roles in the policy process, including representing voters' political views in authorized bodies, striving to maintain or obtain power over the government, and developing policy ideas. They influence the political agenda through their representation in parliament, domination over citizens, and the ideologies they represent. Ruling parties prioritize public policies in line with their pre-election promises and use their authority gained through elections to facilitate policy implementation. Opposition parties also impact policy implementation by influencing legal regulations necessary for policy implementation. Furthermore, political parties play a crucial role in bringing up or creating policies that meet societal needs to gain voters' approval, thereby transforming societal desires and demands into policies.

Political parties significantly influence the process of forming public policies because both opposition and ruling parties are directly involved. The ideological orientations and behaviors of political parties are influenced by various factors such as the social, economic, political, and cultural structures of countries, as well as their sociological characteristics, numbers, sizes, and importance. Political party systems and structures also influence the public policies implemented in a country. For example, in a single-party system, other actors do not have a say in the formation of public policies, whereas in a multi-party system, other actors can gain a voice. Each political party represents various segments of society and has different ideological views, which are reflected in the policies they advocate for. Therefore, political parties play a significant role in bringing the voices of different societal features to the agenda and creating policies that respond to the needs and demands of citizens. Additionally, both opposition and ruling parties can be involved in the public policy process, with the ruling party determining and legislating policies while the opposition party influences the ruling party and brings issues to the agenda.

The media plays a crucial role in the public policy process by setting the agenda and influencing public opinion. It acts as a communicator on government policy and program agendas, informing citizens about government policies and programs while also providing feedback to the government about the impact of these policies on citizens. Additionally, the media indirectly influences other participants in the process by shaping public opinion and enlarging it, which can lead policymakers to take notice of certain issues. The emergence of social media has transformed communication and participation in political issues by breaking down the invisible wall between citizens and the government. Social media allows for mutual communication and interaction beyond geographical boundaries, enabling citizens to voice their opinions, concerns, and demands more quickly and easily. It has increased citizen involvement in political issues and their influence on politics, as citizens now have the power to influence political decisions and make their voices heard through platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Social media has also facilitated faster access to information updates and wider news sources, transforming traditional media and allowing for broader perspectives in journalism. Overall, social media has democratized communication and participation in political issues, giving citizens a platform to engage with policymakers and shape public

Civil society organizations (CSOs) have gained significant influence in the public policy process due to factors such as economic liberalization, technological advancements, globalization, and the development of governance. These organizations, which include foundations, associations, unions, and various interest groups, operate outside the government and are based on volunteerism. CSOs contribute to the public policy process by creating awareness, expertise, and local knowledge on various issues such as human rights, education, health, and the environment. They provide information, recommendations, and data to policymakers, shaping public policy by articulating the demands of the constituency they represent and ensuring that they are considered in decision-making.

Furthermore, CSOs influence the government in shaping public policies by informing policymakers, creating alternative policy solutions, and balancing collaboration between the government, private sector, and the constituency they represent. Their collaboration reduces the government's workload and increases participation by bridging the gap between the government and society. Both national and international CSOs are effective in the public policy process, with international CSOs playing active roles in issues like environmental policies and human rights protection. Overall, CSOs contribute significantly to the public policy process by advocating for societal needs, influencing decision-making, and ensuring policy effectiveness through their involvement in formulation, implementation, and evaluation.

Interest groups play a crucial role in the public policy process by providing specialized knowledge and expertise related to their interests. They offer information aligned with the desires and needs of the represented group, aiding decision-makers in policy formulation. Additionally, interest groups ensure the involvement of diverse societal groups in decision-making, leading to the formation of various policy alternatives. They make policy recommendations to the government, exerting pressure to align decisions with their interests. The effectiveness of interest groups is influenced by factors such as their size, financial resources, organizational structure, and social status, with pressure groups being particularly influential in shaping public policy in Western democracies.

Think tanks play a crucial role in the policy process by providing advice to policymakers, collecting information, conducting analyses, and educating the public through reports and conferences. They address complex issues and help governments develop more analytical policies, particularly in areas like urban problems, unemployment, poverty, and crime rates. While their history dates back to ancient times, modern think tanks vary in terms of their establishment, size, budget, staff qualifications, political stance, government support, and impact on decision-makers. They may focus on regional or global issues and cover a wide range of topics such as international peace, globalization, environmental issues, and poverty. Think tanks contribute significantly to policymaking both nationally and internationally by offering valuable insights, expertise, and policy recommendations to governments and policymakers.

International actors play a significant role in the public policy process, particularly with the increasing interconnectedness of the world due to globalization. These actors, including international organizations, have a diverse impact on governments, although their influence may vary between developed and developing countries. International organizations, such as the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the World Trade Organization, UNICEF, and WHO, operate globally with the aim of reducing conflicts, increasing cooperation, addressing economic management, social issues, public health, and more.

Overall, international actors influence policymaking by setting agendas, providing funding, offering expertise, promoting cooperation between nations, and implementing policies aimed at addressing global issues. Their involvement in the public policy process is crucial for tackling transnational challenges and achieving common goals for the international community.

International organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the World Health Organization (WHO) significantly influence public policy in Türkiye. The IMF proposes policies for global economic growth and financial stability, providing financial support and technical assistance to Türkiye since its membership in 1947. Similarly, the World Bank offers financial and technical support, aiding Türkiye's economic development through loan agreements since 1950. The ILO protects universal human and labor rights, supporting Türkiye in labor-related policies since its membership in 1932. Lastly, the WHO focuses on public health issues globally, collaborating with Türkiye on disease eradication campaigns and healthcare system improvements. These international organizations play crucial roles in shaping Türkiye's public policies by providing financial support, technical assistance, setting standards, and promoting cooperation across various sectors.

The COVAX initiative was established by the WHO, UNICEF, CEPI, and GAVI during the COVID-19 pandemic to accelerate the development, production, and fair access to COVID-19 tests, treatments, and vaccines.