Research Methods in Psychology

The most striking similarity between science and philosophy is that both generate knowledge. This knowledge aims to help individuals understand themselves, their environment, the world, and even the universe.

Philosophy is directly concerned with the question, “What is knowledge?” As for philosophy, knowledge is the relation between the agent and the theme (the subject and the object). In this proposition, the agent is a human, and all the rest is the theme. Based on this definition, an individual has to contact with an object so that that object can convert into knowledge.

While science is the sum of organized knowledge, epistemology is a thinking act about the basic principles of a science or scientific field.

Some of the fundamental characteristics of science are as follows:

1. Science is objective: Science generates impartial knowledge, and scientific conclusions do not vary across individuals.
2. Science uncovers the reality in nature: Science works on what it is, not what it should be. Remember, it is philosophy that focuses on what it should be.
3. Science includes systematic and organized pieces of knowledge: Scientific knowledge can only be obtained through scientific methods.
4. Science is cumulative: A scientific finding may not be enough to solve a problem. In time, pieces of knowledge growing in the
pool of science can be helpful to formulate a possible solution.
5. Science is replicable: The results of a research must be replicable by another research conducted under the same circumstances.

Physical sciences, also called natural sciences, is the general name for the branches of science such as physics, chemistry, biology, zoology, botany, and physiology. In the beginning, all sciences were together under the unifying roof of philosophy, yet physical sciences and philosophy grew apart in time. On the other hand, social sciences is the common name used for those that study social events and humans’ social and cultural activities. The term social sciences is also sometimes used as a synonym for humanities. Social sciences include sub-branches such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, ethnology, economics, and law. This distinction between physical and social sciences does not necessarily mean that they never interact

Direct measurement refers to measuring the target features without any influence from other variables. In this measurement type, the features of the variable to be measured and the measurement tool are of the same kind. Indirect measurement refers to measuring a variable that is not fit for direct measurement by using measurement tools that supposedly measure this particular variable.

Scientific research is a systematic process of data collection and analysis. In other words, it is a methodological study conducted in relation to science. Method, on the other hand, refers to a path that is paved in accordance with a plan in order to access some specific results.

Fundamental research studies are those that aim either to develop or test a theory. Applied research studies, on the other hand, produce suggestions for practice based on the findings of fundamental research. 

1. It is necessary for the development of a country. One of the indicators of modernity in the contemporary world includes research and development activities.
2. It is necessary to develop the technology. All technologies easing human life are based on the findings of scientific research studies.
3. It is necessary to be able to provide services. Regardless of the type, any service provided to a community has to be founded by science. For example, psycho-therapies given by psychologists have to be scientific.
4. It is necessary to overcome conventional judgments. Conventional knowledge is mostly accepted by people without a question. Yet, scientific knowledge can help eradicate any piece of knowledge that is not true. This also facilitates critical thinking. The better we know something, the better we can
use it.
5. It is necessary to be able to generate true, evidence-based, and less risky knowledge.
6. It is necessary to solidify relatively abstract (intuitive) knowledge.

Population consists of the individuals that the findings will be generalized on; for example, all the mine workers in Turkey. If the number of individuals in a population is more than the researcher can reach, s/he studies with samples. A sample is a group formed by a certain number of individuals or participants that allows making generalizations on the population. 

Correlation is the degree of the relationship between two or more variables. Correlation coefficient, on the other hand, is the numerical value representing the relation between variables calculated through specific statistical techniques. To put it more simply, correlational studies are employed to determine if there is a relationship between variables or not. In all research studies, numerical values of correlation coefficient are always represented between -1.00 and +1.00. While positive (+) correlational values indicate a direct proportion (a positive relationship) between variables, negative (-) values point out the inverse relationship (negative relationship).

In research, an independent variable is the cause and a dependent variable is the effect.

The experimental group is the one that the researcher works on, and the control group is the one that the researcher refers to compare the experimental group.

1. Social reality is different from the physical reality: Quantitative approach regards social reality as physical reality and claims that it is also objective. Indeed, qualitative approach states that social reality is not objective, and this is the most important feature that distinguishes it from physical reality.
2. It focuses on the process: Quantitative research is mainly concerned with aims and results. On the contrary, qualitative approach values process more than results. In this sense, a major part of qualitative research is dedicated to data collection.
3. Research process is flexible: In quantitative research, there is a strict plan, and it is never possible to bend it. Qualitative research also flows along a plan, but this plan can be amended based on the obtained data or emerging conditions.
4. It has an inductive structure: In quantitative research, the study stems from a theory and moves towards a part/piece. However, the aim is to reach a theory in qualitative approach.
5. It has a holistic approach: In quantitative research, parts of a whole are handled one by one. Yet, qualitative approach tries to investigate the subject with a holistic perspective believing that “the whole is different from the sum of the parts.”
6. Researcher is also a participant: In a quantitative approach, the researcher can never be a participant at the same time,
whereas the researcher tries to be a part of the natural environment as much as possible in qualitative approach.
7. The aim is not to generalize but to analyze the subject comprehensively: The results obtained through quantitative research are generalized to other situations. On the other hand, qualitative research does not aim to generalize the results, but to describe the subject as elaborately and comprehensively as possible.

The aim of grounded theory design is to focus on meanings and experiences. It somehow resembles phenomenology design.

Observer effect is the tendency that the participants have not to behave naturally due to the influence of being observed.

Document analysis refers to analyzing written and visual materials containing information about the target phenomena or events.

It refers to the joint use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches during data collection and analysis. Following a certain plan, mixed-method uses quantitative and qualitative data to support each other. Mixed method is mostly preferred when conditions are not stable and when information cannot be gathered via one method. In this case, mixed method, providing a pragmatist perspective, offers us space where we can observe events and their effects at the same time and where we can assess the results.

Science ethics refers to a space of discussion where value problems encountered during scientific activities and relevant solutions are discussed and negotiated. Science ethics provide the principles that people engaging in scientific activities should follow during their studies.

There are four main ethical principles that researchers have to follow:
• Not harming the participants
• Granting written consent from the participants
• Preserving confidentiality
• Avoiding scientific deception