Learning

Learning, as a matter of research in psychology, is not unique to humans. It actually refers to the adaptation process that an organism goes through to balance with the changing environmental conditions. Some animal behaviors and almost all human behaviors are formed as a result of learning processes. The most common definition states that learning is a relatively permanent change in the behavior of an organism due to experience.1,2 The terms ‘organism’ and ‘behavior’, as they are used in the definition, matter significantly in terms of internalizing what learning is.

Alternative definitions for learning:
1. the alteration of behavior as a result of individual experience.
2. a persisting change in human performance or potential depending on the individual’s experience and interaction with the world.

The term organism includes animals and humans.Organism in this definition refers to either humans or animals. 

Behavior,includes all the activities an organism performs. It is the sum of all observable and non-observable activities that are either overt or covert. For instance, speaking, writing, thinking, and heartbeating are all behaviors. Behavior is not limited to only activities; it also encompasses situations/ states. In this sense, both speaking and not speaking are two different behaviors. Human behaviors may manifest either on their own or as
a means to an end. Those emerging without any external stimulation are called movements that, via interaction with environmental conditions, compromise operant behaviors—goal-oriented behaviors. For instance, a toddler’s first steps taken during a walk are movements but reaching her/his mom at the end of this walk is operant behavior. 

Basically, there are two components of behavior stimulus and response. Stimulus is either an external or internal change in state that induces a response from the organism. Feeling hungry and rapid heartbeat rate can be noted as examples of
internal changes while others that relate to changes in lightning, heat, or sound are classified as external changes. Response, on the contrary, is the behavior
that an organism displays based on a stimulus. For example, turning our head towards the sound of a plane is a response for the sound stimulus.

1. Learning is a change in behavior. This change is relatively permanent and long
lasting.
2. Since learning is a result of an individual’s experience, the individual assumes an active role and performs operant behavior (other than conditioning, which will be discussed later in the chapter).
3. Learning, itself, cannot be directly observed. What can be observed is an individual’s performance, meaning that what is observable is not an individual’s potential but her/his performance.
4. Learning directs an individual to respond differently to situations to be experienced later in life. In other words, learning, once achieved, can be transferred to various situations and settings.

1. Instantaneous and temporary changes in behavior are not considered learning. For example, if someone taking swimming classes during winter cannot swim in the sea during the summer holiday, then, we can conclude that there is no learning since changes are not permanent. Similarly, consider someone using her/his left hand because her/his right arm is broken and in a sling. Do you think learning has manifested in this example? If that particular individual still continues to use her/his left hand after her/his right arm heals, we can confidently say that learning has been determined due to permanent change in that individual’s hand-using behavior. However, if that individual shifts right back to using her/ his right hand after the healing is complete, then no learning has been achieved because there is no permanent result.
2. Albeit permanent, congenital behaviors are not considered as learning. Congenital behaviors include reflexes and modal behaviors. Reflexes are rapid, consistent, and simple behaviors displayed against a stimulus – e.g. knee jerk, eye blinking. Modal behaviors, yet, refer to complicated behaviors observed among all the members of a species. Honey production by bees and spiders producing webs are among modal behaviors. Although both behaviors are
permanent and goal oriented, they do not represent learning because they are innate. Reflexes, modal behaviors, behaviors consequence of growth and temporary effects are not learned behaviors.

3. If the change in behavior is not a result of an individual’s interaction with the
environment, but instead is a by-product of an illness, fatigue, medication, or accident, then this change cannot be classified as learning. For instance, nonsense talk exhibited by a patient waking up from anesthesia is not learning since stimulus here is medication.
4. If the change in a behavior is dependent on growing, then it is not learning. For example, clumsiness displayed by a teenager during adolescence cannot be considered learning since it is a result of growing body parts.

Species-Specific Readiness: This refers to being biologically equipped in line with species-specific layout so that the organism can display the desired behavior. For example, many animals cannot learn to talk because they biologically lack species-specific speaking equipment.

Maturation: An organism has to be mature enough in terms of both age and mental processes in order for effective learning to be achieved. Influential over learning, maturing generally refers to two concepts: age and intelligence. For instance, humans have the species-specific tools to talk, but they cannot talk until they reach a certain age. In addition, they cannot solve survival problems before they attain a certain mental level.

Arousal: Levels of arousal can vary across different organisms. Arousal indicates the capacity and skills an organism has to process external stimuli. If the level of external stimuli is low or high, the level of arousal will also be low or high, respectively. For example, little or no external stimuli is registered during sleep because the level of arousal is low. At the other extreme, arousal level is maximal during fear or panic. The ideal level of arousal for effective learning is “midline”, which is called optimal arousal level. The same applies to anxiety as well. Both low and high levels of anxiety negatively influence learning, and the optimal anxiety level is best for learning.

The learning process is grounded on five main components:

Learner, what is learned, learning strategy, learning support (if any), and learning environment. Indeed, each and every factor that can influence these components during a learning process will eventually be influential over the behavior either directly or indirectly. Remember the definition of learning; the change in a behavior has to be a result of an organism’s own experience. This emphasis puts factors about a learner (organism) in front of all other factors
because they are directly definitive over learning. These factors include species-specific readiness, maturing, arousal, transfer, motivation, cognitive readiness, physical fit, and active participation.

Transfer: An organism needs to have completed some earlier learning, in other words some kind of prior information, in order to achieve learning. Positive or negative transfer is observed respectively if previous learning facilitates or debilitates current learning. Learning how to play tennis after you know how to play ping-pong is an example of positive transfer but learning to type on an F
keyboard layout after learning to type on a Q keyboard is an example of negative transfer.

In positive transfer, previous learning facilitates new learning, but in negative transfer previous learning debilitates it.

Motivation: Motivation helps an individual to move, to be open and eager for learning, and to feel the need for learning. Motivation consists of three cyclical components: (1) feeling the need, (2) acting to satisfy the need, and (3) satisfaction and relief. An organism first feels a gap and necessity, then acts out to fill this gap. If the behavior meets the goal, then the need is satisfied, and the organism feels relief. For instance, the stomach has to be empty and the need for satisfaction has to be felt for hunger to be a motivation. In the second step,
the individual moves to eliminate hunger through eating. Satisfaction and relief are observed if enough food is consumed by that individual. Satisfaction and relief do not serve to eradicate the motivation once and for all, but rather to postpone the need until it is felt again. This is what makes motivation cyclical, and this is also true for learning. Let’s say someone feels the need to learn a language. S/he works hard for this and achieves a desired level of competence in that language, resulting in satisfaction and relief. However, another need to
learn something else emerges, which exemplifies the cyclical nature of motivation. 

Cognitive Readiness: Unlike intelligence, this factor points out that an individual is ready to pick up certain types of stimuli. An individual should focus her/his attention onto the subject matter to achieve learning. Stimulus has to be the focal point of attention, especially to attain learning together with a high level of awareness. Cognitively ready, the organism will be able to filter out unnecessary stimuli blocking the target stimulus.

Physical Fit: Bearing certain physicalmcharacteristics may either hinder or ease certainmtypes of learning. For instance, people with a certainmset of muscle type are advantageous in terms of learning how to swim as opposed to others who do not have the same muscle layout. Likewise, it will turn out to be a nightmare to learn how to walk rhythmically for an individual with coordination
problems.

Active Participation: The more active an organism is the higher the possibility will be for learning to occur. Being active, for an organism, means investing into learning and incorporating the learning process into its life.

Neurons: are the smallest building blocks of the central nervous system and
are the individual cells of the brain. They are the foundation for cognitive behaviors such as learning, remembering, thinking, and perceiving. Humans are generally born with approximately 180 billion neurons. A sea mollusc – a simple life form – hosts around only 20 thousand neurons. Learning is not definitive over the number of neurons. Unlike other body cells, neurons, once dead, cannot regenerate. Learning is realized via neuro-chemical bonds and paths
established among neurons. Glial cells assist and feed neurons and play a substantial role for human memory. Learning may be influential over both the
number and functions of glia cells. Most probably, we have the same number of neurons as Einstein, but his glia cells were prominently more and hyper
functional compared to ours.

Another anatomical structure that learning can impact is the myelin sheath – a membrane covering some neurons. When cells are tubed within a myelin membrane and when this membrane gets thicker, interaction across neurons become faster, which eases learning. You can visualize the myelin membrane as plastic tubes around electric cables. Learning is known to have a direct impact on two structures in the brain:
• It influences both the number and function of glia cells.
• It determines the pace of myelin membrane formation, which eases learning.
• First steps of a baby
• Honey making by bees
• A client’s right product choice
• Intimidating screams from a person highly intoxicated with alcohol.

The environment cannot affect the structure of a neuron but can influence the neural networks that support new learning.

All learning theories can be grouped under three major perspectives: behaviorist, cognitive, and social learning theories. While the behaviorist approach mainly focuses on observable behaviors, cognitive understanding seeks to unravel what lies behind the observable behavior. Social learning theory, on
the other hand, tries to explore how an individual learns within her/his social environment. Each broad-line learning theory depends on various learning styles (sub-theories) that they put forth.
All each theory can do to unfold the mystery of a complex phenomenon is to
shed light onto some part(s) of that phenomenon. A complete understanding of learning theory requires a holistic approach to link each theory’s principles to those of others. Therefore, for a more accurate understanding, consider the following learning theories with an integrative standpoint, not through comparing
one with another.

Principal assumptions of the behaviorist approach are as follows:
• Human learning is similar to learning in other organisms. People learn in the way dogs or pigeons do. Thus, behaviorists employ the term ‘organism’ to refer to both humans and animals.
• Learning can be analyzed only by focusing on observable and measurable behaviors. Any characteristic or behavior that cannot be measured should not be a field of interest for scientific analysis. For instance, it is not possible to scientifically study dreams and imagination.
• Humans’ characteristics such as emotions, opinions and motivation should be ignored if they cannot be measured. The organism is a black box. Whatever comes in (stimulus) and goes out (response) of this box must be observable and measurable. What happens inside the box, in other words, cognitive and emotional processes, can never be explained and understood.

• The rules of thumb for learning are based on the relation between stimulus and response. A response without a stimulus, or a response independent from its stimulus is not thinkable.
• “Conditioning” should be used instead of learning because an organism is conditioned by its environmental stimuli. Therefore, learning manifests without the control of the organism. To put it differently, the organism assumes a passive role, especially in classical conditioning.
• Learning should only be discussed if there is a change in the organism’s behaviors. If not, learning cannot be verified.
According to the behaviorist approach, there are two learning processes leading to change in behaviors: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning, so-called Pavlovian conditioning, was discovered and developed by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) almost as a result of coincidence.

Ivan Pavlov was designated with a Nobel Prize in medicine for his experiments of conditioning.

Classical conditioning is the learning that manifests based on producing the response observed after a specific stimulus with a different and neutral stimulus.

John Watson and Rosalie Ryner were the first to study classical conditioning in humans.

Desensitization should be developed against negative stimuli. Habituation, on the other hand, is developed for desired stimuli. For instance, children get systematically desensitized against corporal punishment and habituated for rewards.

Stimulus generalization is to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS. Stimulus discrimination occurs when a learned response occurs to a specific
stimulus, which is the original CS but not to other similar stimuli.

Behaviorist theory regards learning as establishing an association between stimulus and response. If there is no change in the observable behavior, learning is not achieved. According to the theory, learning is realized via conditioning, either classical or operant. Pioneers of classical and operant conditioning
- which are a result of almost concurrent research studies – are Pavlov and Skinner respectively. In classical conditioning, a response induced naturally by a stimulus can also be produced by way of a different and neutral stimulus. The most famous example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s dog displaying the same response for meat and the sound of a bell after conditioning. In this example, the animal’s reaction is dependent on the assumption that meat will be served after the sound of a bell. Following the response, the organism is exposed to either a desired (reinforcement) or undesired (punishment) stimulus. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of recurrence for that specific behavior
whereas punishment decreases its recurrence probability. In other words, the stimulus is presented before the response in classical conditioning and after the behavior in operant conditioning.

Underlining that learning is an association between stimulus and response, behaviorist theory states that only observable and measurable behaviors can be a matter of learning. Opposing behaviorism, the cognitive approach disputes learning as a mechanical process. What kind of a response the stimulus
will induce is largely based on the mental processes of an individual actively involved in the learning process. Therefore, learning is attained via this formula Stimulus Organism Response. In other words, the essential factors in learning are not observable behaviors, but cognitive processes such as attention,
memory, comprehension, reasoning, and abstraction. Cognitive theorists consider learning to be a part of the efforts an individual exerts to make sense of the world. Learning types grounded in cognitive learning theory are Tolman’s latent learning, Köhler’s insight learning, and information processing.

Developed by Albert Bandura and updated as cognitive-social learning theory in time, this approach is in line with behaviorism with respect to the idea that the environment has a major influence over an organism. However, scholars of this theory are cautious about Skinner’s proposition that ‘cognitive processes are worthless in terms of understanding the nature of behavior’. According to social learning theory, primary factors definitive over learning are behavior, environment, cognitive processes, and the interaction among them. People learn through observing others they acknowledge as role models in their social environments. When doing so, they are guided by their own beliefs, self-concepts, selfcompetencies, and expectations to mediate the behavior they observe and the one they display. In other words, an individual actively decides whether some behaviors should be taken as models or not.