The Tanzîmât Reforms, 1876

Gülhâne decree promised: 

• to guarantee the life, honor and property of the Ottoman subjects, 
• to treat subjects from all classes alike, 
• to make all trials public, 
• not to sentence any subject to death without proper trial and sentencing,, and equality to all subjects in taxation. 

The Tanzîmât era was marked with new councils, some of which, however, had been created earlier. Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye (Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances) had been founded during the reign of Mahmud II. As the workload of this particular council grew in time, the ruling elite of the Tanzîmât period changed some of its functions. The judicial functions were maintained and a new body, Meclis-i Âlî-yi Tanzîmât (Supreme Council of Reforms) was created to cover the legislative functions. These two bodies were united in 1860, with a new division of labor: legislative, administrative investigation and court of appeals. In 1868, they were divided once again under the name Şûrâ-yı Devlet (Council of State) with both Christian and Muslim members who were selected by provincial governors. This final division covered legislative functions and court of appeals. 

The military was another area that the Tanzîmât reforms covered. Under the command of Serasker created during the post 1826 era, the name of the army was changed to nizâmiye (regular army) troops that were organized according to the European military design. An important novelty of the time was the official introduction of military conscription. For the sake of equality, Christians were initially subjected to conscription. They were later excluded and instead of performing military duty, they paid a special tax known as bedel-i askerî (military payment). Like Christians, the residents of Istanbul and nomads were exempt from military service. Furthermore, under the regulation of 1869, military obligation was defined as four years of active duty. 

The Ottoman legal system also underwent significant changes. Although, with Tanzîmât secular laws replaced the traditional system of law, Tanzîmât statesmen did not abolish the cannon law of Islam, Şeriat, but confined its practice to the family law. A new penal code– later revised-was announced in 1843 and it introduced equality between Muslim and non-Muslim subjects under the law. The next year, death penalty for Muslims who apostatized, meaning abandoning religious beliefs and allegiances, was abolished. Mixed tribunals were created for legal commercial cases that involved foreigners. Inspired by French legal codes, a new commercial law was passed in 1850. This was followed by the maritime law in 1863. In 1867 another legal decision allowed foreigners to own land in the Ottoman Empire. In 1869, nizâmiye (regular) courts were created to serve for both Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Inspired by the French law, these courts were designed for criminal, civil and commercial cases. 

Furthermore, a civil code was proposed by Ali Pasha taking the French one as a model. However, this was rejected by the ulemâ as their power over the existing judicial system declined. As an outcome, instead of the French civil code, the religious law was codified and Mecelle (Civil Code of Legal Affairs) was written (1870-1877). This civil code covered the civil life of the Muslims of the Hanefî sect. The code lasted until 1926 when the new civil code was introduced. 

Tanzîmât brought innovations into the educational system. A modern and secular school system was achieved through the creation of the Council of Education in 1845, the Ministry of Education in 1857 and the Law of Education (Maârif-i Umûmiye Nizâmnâmesi) in 1869. This law required that schools be established in every corner of the Ottoman state. 

Ahmed Cevdet Pasha (1822-95) was an Ottoman statesman and scholar. He was a protégé of Mustafa Reşit Pasha. Working with Fuad Pasha, Ahmed Cevdet wrote the first modern Ottoman grammar. In addition to holding important official positions, Ahmed Cevdet was known for his ten-volume, “History of Cevdet.” Also, in the 1870s, Mecelle ,as a civil code of Islamic character, was written under his direction. 

The non-Muslims were also allowed to establish their own schools. Many non-Muslim groups had their own schools. Especially with the free hand that was given to the non-Muslim population and foreign powers, many schools were established. The different ethnic and religious groups were in competition with one another and many opened private schools. Foreign Catholic and Protestant missionaries also founded schools on the Ottoman lands. Among them was Notre Dame de Sion, a school for girls, established in 1856. Another example to such schools would be Robert College which was initiated by Cyrus Hamlin in 1863. 

The land code opened the way for the leaders of the newly settled tribes. The leaders became landlords and farmed their lands, for which they used peasants as sharecroppers. Some of these landlords became capitalist farmers in cotton and tobacco production. During and after the American Civil War, fought from 1861 to 1865 between United States of the North and 11 Southern states that formed the Confederate States of America, the Ottoman landlords expanded their market to Europe. After the 1908 revolution, these men appeared as the new middle class. 

During the Tanzîmât era, the tithe (a‘şâr) and service tax (mürettebat) were maintained. Nevertheless, the burden of providing food and lodging to the travelling or visiting officials on the villages or communities ended. The head tax cizye for non-Muslims was abolished with the Imperial decree of 1856. Instead, a military service exemption tax (bedel-i askerî) taken from non- Muslims was put into effect. The sheep tax (ağnâm vergisi) was extended to all farm animals in the same year. With the land code in 1858, the state sought to tax the property owners. The consolidated tax (vergü) was not taken out but collected at the quarter or village level. In 1860, taxation of real property and income on a proportional basis were systematized (Findley, 2008). 

Along with new taxes, the system of collecting taxes changed. The tax farming was replaced by a direct taxation system in the 1840s. As such, salaried officials (muhassıl) as tax collectors were appointed from the central administration. The aim was to increase the state revenue and lift the burden off the producers. With the help of the local councils, muhassıls were appointed to collect taxes. They were also responsible for telling people about the Tanzîmât, creating councils, and registering taxpayers and their properties. But the direct system of taxation failed. It was due to inadequate number of muhassıls, sabotage by the local notables who benefitted from the tax farming system and lack of knowledge as cadastral survey remained incomplete. In 1842, Mustafa Reşid Pasha decided to bring the tax farming system back and the tax farmers continued to collect the tithe. 

The first Ottoman paper currency Kaime was issued in 1840 under Sultan Abdülmecid. These banknotes were not printed but rather handmade and were stamped with the official seal. Later they were printed in various forms and amounts until 1862. 

The Crimean War (1853-1856) broke out in the Crimean peninsula when Catholic and Orthodox Churches competed over the keys of the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem, Palestine. In May, 1853, Russia demanded the right to protect the Orthodox Church and the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Supported by Britain and France, the Ottoman state refused the Russian demands. As a result, in July, 1853, Russia moved its troops into the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia under the Ottoman rule. The European powers and the Ottomans demanded that Russia evacuate these principalities. Russia did not comply with these demands. The Ottoman state declared war on Russia on September 23, 1853. France and Britain joined the war on the Ottoman side in 1854. Russia was afraid that Austria would enter the war. It, thus, evacuated the Danubian principalities, which were occupied by Austria in the summer of 1854. Later, Sardinia-Piedmont joined the anti-Russian front by 1855. In the beginning of 1856, under the pressure of the growing tension, Russia agreed to make peace with the Ottomans and her allies. 

Concert of Europe was established in order to preserve the territorial and political status quo of Europe during the post- Napoleonic era, starting from 1814-1815. 

One of the results of the Crimean War was the proclamation of the Imperial Decree (Islahât Fermânı) in 1856. Called “the fermân of concessions”, the decree reaffirmed the terms of the Gülhâne Decree. The Crimean War had other results such as the increased contact with the west. Compared to their Muslims counterparts, the middle class Christians strengthened their positions. As a result, Muslim merchants had difficulties in competing with Christians merchants who were under the protection of European powers. These contacts also made western commodities appear more on the Ottoman lands. During the war, many westerners came to Istanbul and the Parisian customs became appealing to the upper class Muslims. To give an example, Sultan Abdülmecid went to a western type of gathering, a ball, given by the British ambassador in celebration of the victory over the Russians. The war also had devastating effects on common people. Russia forced Muslims in Crimea to leave and replaced them with Orthodox Christians. Muslims emigrated from Caucasus to the Ottoman lands. This continued from 1864 to 1870, approximately 2, 500, 000 refugees flooded into the Ottoman lands. 

In a similar vein, it declared to maintain equality for all Ottoman subjects before the law, guaranteed protecting of their properties, and preserve their honor without any distinction of class or religion. In other words, the Imperial Decree reasserted the rights of all subjects and guaranteed freedom of religion. Compared to the Gülhâne Decree, the Imperial Decree of 1856 did not refer to the religious law. The decree of 1856 confirmed the abolition of the death penalty if and when a Muslim apostatized and converted to another religion. It also put an end to the dhimmi status of non-Muslims, and abolished the head tax called cizye. This signified that the Islamic aspect of taxation was replaced by a more secular one, bedel-i askerî, taken as a military exemption tax. 

Moreover, the decree established rights for non-Muslims to have education in public schools and to be employed in state bureaucracy. It reaffirmed the historical communal privileges that non-Muslims could form their own assemblies and organize their own affairs. Now, they could also establish their own regulations that were known as constitutions. Along with assemblies as representative bodies and types of constitutions, non-Muslims for the first time found representation in the Supreme Council. 

The decree did not, however, satisfy Britain and Russia since the word equality had different interpretations for both. The British considered equality to mean millets under Ottoman rule as a corporate community. For the Russians, it meant the rights of religious communities and their autonomy. Moreover, the decree faced internal reactions. Ottoman Muslims criticized it since it gave concession to non-Muslims. Ali and Fuad Pashas were blamed for granting political privileges to Ottoman Christians. Giving full equality meant that the political power of the Muslims would be lessened. On the other hand, there were some who were happy to see Muslims and non-Muslims integrate. They were few in numbers, however. The higher Christian clergy, especially the Greeks, was afraid of losing control over their religious communities. Moreover, some Christians did not like to be considered in equal terms with the Jewish population. 

Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) was a nurse who served during the Crimean War at a British base hospital in Istanbul. She was also known as, “the Lady with the Lamp” for her night rounds to help the wounded people. Her work during the war inspired to create a society for sick and wounded Ottoman soldiers. This society represented the Red Cross Society in Europe. In 1877, its Ottoman version came to be called the Ottoman Red Crescent Society. 

Sultan Abdülaziz ascended to the Ottoman throne upon Abdülmecid’s death in 1861. Like his brother, he continued the reforms directed by the Grand viziers Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha. He established new administrative districts (vilayet), organized public education and declared the first Ottoman civil code. Sultan Abdülaziz cultivated good relations with the European powers especially with France and Great Britain. He was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Europe in 1867. 

Print media in the Ottoman lands was not a novelty of the Tanzîmât period. It had earlier roots. The newspaper Takvîm-i Vekâyi (Calender of Facts) had been published in 1831 as an official bulletin. Cerîde-i Havâdis (Journal of News) came up as a semi-private newspaper in 1840 and was dominant in the Ottoman press for twenty years. The actual beginning of the Ottoman press was the 1860s when print media produced a new style of penmanship under the influence of French literature. İbrahim Şinasi (1826-1871), Ziya Pasha (1829-1880) and Namık Kemal (1840- 1888) were three of the major figures of the new literary movement. This new wave of literature influenced the start of a weekly journal, Tercüman-ı Ahvâl (Interpreter of Situations) in 1860 as the first privately owned newspaper. It was published by Çapanzade Agah Efendi, a member of the Translation Bureau of the Sublime Porte. İbrahim Şinasi, a liberal minded intellectual, poet and dramatist became its editor and writer. 

The first modern intelligentsia called the Young Ottomans emerged in the 1860s. The hallmark of this new intellectuals manifested itself when Namık Kemal and some young bureaucrats founded a secret society known as İttifâk-ı Hamiyet (Alliance of Patriotism) in 1865. This society, like Carbonari in Italy, aimed at preventing foreign intervention and sought to create a patriotic and a constitutional parliamentary system. İttifâk-ı Hamiyet grew quickly and the number of its members soon reached 245. 

Prince Mustafa Fazıl Pasha had an important role in the Young Ottoman Movement. Mustafa Fazıl opposed his brother İsmail Pasha who then was the governor of Egypt. Problems arose when İsmail Pasha was granted the title of khedive by Sultan Abdülaziz. This changed the formally established law of succession in Egypt that agreed to the passing of the title khedive from father to son. Prince Mustafa Fazıl Pasha left for France from where he sent an open letter to the Sultan. In his letter, he criticized the Sultan and the Grand vizier. He proposed to have a constitutional regime and asked for reforms. His letter excited the Ottoman liberals, such as Namık Kemal and Ebuzziya Tevfik (1849-1913). They distributed the printed version of Mustafa Fazıl’s letter. As a result, Namık Kemal and his friends were sent into exile. Mustafa Fazıl Pasha asked them to join him in France. There they assumed a new name for themselves - the New Ottomans (Yeni Osmanlılar). In French, they were referred to as Jeunes Turcs. 

Midhat Pasha had a good reputation for his honesty and efficient administration as the provincial governor of Nish. He also governed the newly formed Danube province and Baghdad. He served as the president of the state council and a Grand vizier. Midhat Pasha was also known for his creation of agricultural credit cooperatives, which were later turned into Ziraat Bankası (Agricultural Bank). He inaugurated the first constitution, which he said to open a new era of prosperity. In 1877, with the order by the autocratic ruler of the time, Sultan Abdülhamid II, Midhat Pasha was exiled into Taif in Arabia where he was killed in 1884.