Therefore, Mahmud II established Hariciye Nezareti (Minister of Foreign Affairs) in 1836 as the first step of the establishment of a modern and professional body for conducting foreign relations. (Tuncer, 30-31) It can be regarded as the beginning of today’s Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The correct answer is E.

Hugo Grotius defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. (Grotius, 1121-1127) The first of these methods is the conference method. The second method is arbitration between parties who do not belong to the same jurisdiction and have no common judge to appeal to, which he considers to be not only convenient but necessary that “Congresses of Christian states were held, where, by them who are no ways interested on one side or other, the differences of contending parties might be made up; and that some means were thought upon to oblige the parties at variance to accept of a peace upon fair and reasonable terms.” What Grotius has suggested is still an important method of conflict resolution in international relations and considered as one of the main functions of diplomacy. The third and the last method to prevent war according to Grotius is to cast lots. The correct answer is B.

Secret diplomacy refers to diplomatic engagements that take place without the knowledge of the public. However it does not mean that the diplomatic meetings that occur behind closed doors are secret diplomacy. 

The main source for ancient Greek diplomacy has been the writings of Thucydides. It is widely accepted that the first account of diplomacy at this period was a diplomatic conference held in 432 BCE. As Nicolson quoted from Thucydides, this conference was convened by Sparta to decide with its allies on punishing Athens with war due to its violation of treaties. While this conference was convened by Sparta for its allies of the Peloponnesian League against Athens, it is known that an Athenian delegation was also allowed to participate at and even to be involved in debates. In fact, the Athenian delegation was there for another specific mission but still was allowed to attend; and this is a sign that by 5th century BCE Greeks were aware of some diplomatic right and some kind of immunity.

French statesmen Richelieu has also formulated ideas on diplomacy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

Congress of Westphalia (1644–48). The congress at which an end to the Thirty Years’ War was negotiated.The main fruits of the negotiations were the two treaties of peace signed on 24 October 1648 known collectively as either the “Treaty” or the “Peace” of Westphalia. They are generally reckoned to have resolved the structure and codified the constitutional rules of the European statessystem as it had emerged from the unity of medieval Christendom. Thereafter, it has not been unusual to see the term “Westphalian system” used to describe the post-1648 system of international relations, i.e. that in which states – secular, sovereign, independent, and equal – are the members, and stability is preserved by the balance of power, diplomacy and international law. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

What were the duties of these specific ministries of foreign affairs?

Although this had varied from case to case, within the political context of early 20th century, the tasks of foreign ministries started to become alike in many examples of the world.

Firstly, policy making mission was given to this ministry. 

Secondly, these ministries were also given the task of staffing and supporting the missions abroad.

Thirdly, they started to coordinated foreign relations especially after the Great War (WWI). 

Fourthly, dealing with foreign diplomats hosted in the home country was also assigned to these ministries.

The Ottoman Empire used ad hoc diplomacy until the end of 18th century. The reign of Selim III, who was closely following the developments in Europe, was a turning point in the adaptation of modern diplomacy. Especially with Mahmud II, the Ottoman Empire began to adapt the rules and institutions of modern diplomacy despite some shortcomings. 

All-in-all, when the dynamics and institutions of Turkish foreign policy and diplomacy are considered, the heritage of Ottoman diplomacy can be clearly seen. In terms of mindset, objectives, instruments and institutions, Turkish diplomacy can be regarded as a continuation of Ottoman diplomacy. 

Therefore, a specific recruitment for diplomatic missions started to take place first in France, later in Habsburgs and Britain. After the recruitment, the diplomatic staff were also subject to additional training. Some training were provided to senior and experienced staff such as ambassadors for them to be able to recruit their own staff such as administrative attachés. 

The French Revolution (1789) and the Industrial Revolution (started in the late 18th century) had serious impact on the Ottoman Empire. Ideas of nationalism, nation-state, equality, fraternity, liberty and justice born out of the French Revolution accelerated the collapse of the empire as other multi-ethnic and multi-religious empires. Starting from the Balkans, all minorities in the Ottoman Empire came up with the demands for independence or at least equality among communities. Ottoman millet (community) system prevented them from being treated as equals. In this process, Ottoman subjects in the Balkans, started with Serbs in 1804 and Greeks in 1821, revolted against the Ottoman Empire. In order to save the empire from disintegrating and prevent foreign countries, like Russia claiming protectorate over the Slavs in the Balkans, from intervening in domestic policies, the Ottoman rulers had to take some serious measures. In 1839 Tanzimat Edict and in 1856 Islahat (Reform) Edict were declared to grant some rights and privileges to the foreign subjects of the Empire

Peace of Westphalia is accepted as the beginning of the modern state system.

The Hittites signed the Kadesh Treaty with the Egyptians.

New diplomacy also included the practices of certain interest groups, non-governmental organizations, transnational solidarity movements and even ordinary individuals. Especially with the introduction of the Internet, diplomacy is no longer considered as a practice that diplomats conduct, but all these above-mentioned actors started to pursue their own agendas and take part in the game of diplomacy. Track II diplomacy, meaning the diplomatic conduct run by non-state actors and influential non-diplomatic individuals, became a new diplomatic tool recognized by states as well.

In the heydays of the Ottoman rule, Suleyman I (Kanuni) granted capitulations to France. Initially, capitulations were economic, political and legal privileges granted to foreign states and subjects. However, as time passed and the empire began to decline, they turned into burdens on the Ottoman Empire hard to carry.

Ottoman sultans did not care for the support of other states or learning opinions and policies of them in certain issues because they thought that it was a kind of inferiority for them to establish permanent diplomatic missions in these countries. (Tuncer, 11) On the other hand, there are different approaches to the source of this sense of superiority. For some scholars, it derived from the perception of Islam as a universal religion and the Ottomans’ duty of safeguarding and expanding the rule of Islam. However, it can be argued that the basic motive of Ottoman sultans was to expand their imperial power rather than solely expanding territories under the flag of Islam. Therefore, the Ottoman rulers did not try to establish bilateral diplomatic relations and missions in foreign countries until the 18th century due to their imperial claims and the sense of superiority rather than religious biases which impeded their mutual relations on the basis of equality which is an important principle of modern diplomacy.

Sumerians were the earliest practitioners of diplomacy.

To this aim, European states followed a threefold strategy. Firstly, they allocated generous budgets for the accommodation and expenses of the diplomatic missions sent to other countries. In the 18th century, envoys, ambassadors and accompanying crew were selected from experienced and reliable civil servants closer to the ruler. After the recruitment, the diplomatic staff were also subject to additional training. Some training were provided to senior and experienced staff. Thirdly, as different from the 18th century resident ambassadors, the ambassadors of permanent diplomacy in the 19th century were not only seen as the envoys of their ruler. They were also authorized to develop instant policies as a reaction to sudden developments and crisis situations.  The correct answer is B.

Therefore, the first Ottoman Embassy was established in London in 1793 and this was a turning point in Ottoman diplomacy. Being aware of the loss of dominance and superiority over the European powers, which had become more powerful starting with colonization and continued with the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, Ottoman rulers used all instruments and institutions of diplomacy. 

Pacta sunt servanda Pacta sunt servanda is a legal term in Latin, which refers to the continuity of agreements between parties and bindingness of the clauses for both parties regardless of a change of a government or ruler. It is one of the ordering principles of modern international law and diplomacy. For more information, see Wehberg, (1959). The correct answer is A.