Dar-el Islam consists of countries where the rules of Islam are implemented and Islamic rituals are performed.

Another contributor of the diplomatic theory is Hugo Grotius, who is a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. 

The function of diplomats was to communicate with other states, to conclude an agreement or alliance which was decided previously, to arrange the exchange of prisoners and the truce, and to announce war. Most certainly, another function of envoys was to gather information about the weaknesses and/or strengths of the host country. The correct answer is E.

The structure of the inter-state system of this Late Bronze Age period can be defined as a system of a “Great Powers’ Club” along with some vassal states dependent on Great Kingdoms. The Great Power Club was composed of five major kingdoms: the kingdom of Hatti, the kingdom of Mittanni, the kingdom of Assyria, the kingdom of Kassite of Babylon and the kingdom of Egypt. 

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Machiavelli’s formulation of diplomacy is based on his experience of serving as diplomat of Florence, his home city, until the fall of the republic in Florence in 1512. During his career Machiavelli took part in the foreign relations of Florence with both other Italian city-states and foreign countries. His theory of diplomacy can be read through his works The Prince, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy and The History of Florence. Thereofre, the correct option is D.

According to Kautilya, six forms of foreign policy are peace, war, non-alignment, seeking shelter, shows of force, and double-dealing.

However, with Serbian and Greek uprisings during the reign of Mahmud II, training Turkish-Muslim translators and diplomats became a priority for the Ottomans. To this end, Tercüme Odası (Translation Room) was established in 1821 and Muslim-Turkish translators began to be trained in this institution and they replaced Dragomans who were the translators during the ad hoc period. 

Diplomacy in the Islamic world began with the establishment of the first Islamic state in 622; and it was not founded through military means but by a social contract, the Medina Charter. The Charter was an agreement settling the inter-tribal conflict between Muslims, Jews and pagans; and it constituted a free state of a pluralistic community. It is a constitution which provided for dispute resolution, a tax system, rights and responsibilities to both Muslims and non-Muslims. However, the Aman was permission for safe passage and conduct. 

Most significant and novel concept of medieval Europe is the term nuncius. A nuncius is the person in charge who is appointed by the ruler as the voice of the principal in another political entity. The correct answer is A.

Celebrity diplomacy is the inclusion of celebrities as advocates to publicise certain causes like peace, human rights, environment and raise awareness about these issues. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Multi-lateral diplomacy is an outcome of modern diplomacy, which came to exist after the Congress of Westphalia and usually functions through conferences. 

Angelos is  a kind of representative that was a messenger used for brief and specific missions, in Ancient Greece.

The Byzantines employed a number of tactics, both overt and covert to achieve their aims through diplomacy rather than military force. It is therefore common to label Byzantine diplomacy as “war by other means” (Antonucci, 1993: 11). They were unique in their method of involvement in internal affairs of other countries. For this aim, the empire initiated a new institution for diplomatic practice, the Bureau of Barbarians. The correct answer is C.

The Peace of Westphalia is signed in 1648 after 30 Years’ Wars between protestant and catholic German principalities. There is a consensus that the Peace of Westphalia introduced the modern notion of sovereignty to interstate relations, therefore, is accepted as the beginning of the modern state system. It established the functional equality among German principalities regardless of their religious/sectarian orientation, size and power.

Celebrity diplomacy is the inclusion of celebrities as advocates to publicise certain causes like peace, human rights, environment and raise awareness about these issues. The correct answer is A.

It was one of the dominant powers until the end of 17th century and carried out its diplomatic relations on the basis of superior-inferior dichotomy. They carried out their diplomatic relations on the basis of unilateralism and there was no room in the Ottoman diplomacy for relations on the basis of equality and mutuality. Therefore, they did not adapt the rules of modern diplomacy until early 1790s because they did not want to make concessions to “inferior” states. However, as opposed to the general view that the Ottomans did not take part in diplomatic relations due to the sense of superiority up until the 18th century, they attached great importance to their diplomatic relations from the beginning. The basic tools of Ottoman diplomacy were Âmans (mercies) and capitulations which reflected the unilateral nature of Ottoman diplomacy and started to be granted to Venetians as early as the reign of Mehmed II (Fatih) in the 15th century. In the heydays of the Ottoman rule, Suleyman I (Kanuni) granted capitulations to France. Initially, capitulations were economic, political and legal privileges granted to foreign states and subjects. However, as time passed and the empire began to decline, they turned into burdens on the Ottoman Empire hard to carry. 

One of the earliest and most informative resources regarding our knowledge on Near East diplomacy is the Mari cuneiform archives, which consist of more than 20 thousand letters, legal documents, diplomatic correspondences, and treaties written on clay tablets.

Diplomacy as a means of foreign relations was intensified particularly under the rule of Babylon’s sixth and most known King Hammurabi.

After the conquest of Sumer by the Akkadian, the Akkadian language supplanted Sumerian as the language of diplomacy in conformity with the political situation. 

The concept of brotherhood included in this letter served as the central argument on which all superseding diplomatic relationship would be centered. The expression of brotherhood is at the same time a sign that indicate the equal relationship between the kings.

The system was mainly based on that of the Sumerians in the south, Babylonian and Akadian in the center and Assyrians in the north.

Napoleon Bonaparte came forward as a charismatic figure in the French politics and became the president of the Republic. Yet, he abolished the Republic and declared himself as the Emperor. These developments in the French domestic politics disquieted the monarchs of the Europe deeply as Napoleon put a solid challenge to the very idea of conservative European monarchies. It could be seen ironic that Napoleon himself abolished the Republic and turned himself into a monarch, yet he imposed nationalist republics in the states that he controlled through Napoleonic Wars. In other words, Napoleon appeared as the distributer of two very dangerous ideologies throughout the Europe: republicanism and nationalism. 

In accordance with the aim of keeping constant correspondence, we see that Italian city states were first to invent the very notion of a resident ambassador. Envoys were sent to foreign countries before Italian city states indeed. Yet, they were usually sent on a specific quest or to deliver a letter from the principal to its counterpart. Italian city states in the Renaissance, on the other hand, institutionalized the practice of having a resident ambassador in other states. The correct answer is C.

Sumerians were the earliest practitioners of diplomacy (3000-2370 BCE). The diplomatic tradition emerged from this site mainly because the Sumerians were the civilization which invented writing sometime in the 4th millennium BCE. In the meantime, Sumeria was the site of the first urban communities consisted of complex social, economic and political structures each of which was ruled by an independent King.

Diplomacy was used by Sumerians with a motivation to end conflicts through the conventional method of sending messengers with the messages written on clay tablets in cuneiform. Sumerian was used as the lingua franca of diplomacy until the Akkadian hegemony was established in the region.