During his career Machiavelli took part in the foreign relations of Florence with both other Italian city-states and foreign countries. His theory of diplomacy can be read through his works The Prince, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy and The History of Florence. The correct answer is E.

Since the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, diplomacy was a significant tool for inter-tribal and inter-state relations. As a part of diplomatic strategy, Ottoman sultans married daughters of chiefs of other tribes or monarchs of the Byzantine Empire. Main objectives of this strategy were developing friendly relations with other states and expanding territories through obtaining new lands as dowry. On the other hand, in the heydays of the Ottoman Empire, its relations with foreign states were not based on mutuality, but on unilaterality. This system was known as the Âman (Mercy) System. Âman was the privilege or immunity granted by the sultan to foreigners or non-Muslims. This system which protected the rights of non-Muslims within the boundaries of the empire was unilaterally granted by the Ottomans. (Turan, 26)

In addition, Âman system constituted the basis of treaties and agreements signed between the Ottomans and foreign states. In accordance with the principles of this system, Ottomans signed treaties and armistice with foreign states for no more than ten years, so they were temporary agreements rather than permanent ones due to the ghaza policy derived from the Islamic dogma. However, this does not mean that the empire was in a permanent war with foreigners or non-Muslims, but it was used as a leverage to expand its territories and reach its objectives. On the other hand, these Âmans and treaties with foreign states were controlled and approved by Sheikh-ul Islam (the head of religious affairs). When the Ottoman Empire was powerful, the basic criteria for these Âmans and treaties was the interests of the state and its subjects. Âmans and treaties against the interests of the state were ruled out by the Sheikh-ul Islam. For example, despite an agreement between the Ottoman Empire and Venice on the basis of Âmans, with the fatwa of Sheikh-ul Islam Ebussuud Efendi, the empire launched an attack to Cyprus in 1570. This shows the pragmatism of Ottoman rulers which affected their foreign relations and diplomacy. (İskit, 147) 

Ancient China can be categorized under two different periods regarding the political structure of the time. The first is the Warring States Era between 656-221 BCE, characterized by the emergence of sovereign states. It was a period of a balance of a power system, so international relations was based on great power rivalry and ephemeral alliances. The Great Powers had leagues, missions and an organized system of correspondence between their many warring states. Diplomacy was based on bilateral relations and missions related to fleeting alliances including maneuvers, secrecy and bribery Chinese states had no permanent friends and enemies; therefore, their strategies were ruthless but still in an equilibrium. It is not surprising that Sun-Tzu, one of the best known military strategists, and his thoughts were influential at this period. Early records indicate that Sun-Tzu lived in the Warring state era and his very famous work The Art of War was influenced by the increasing violence of this era. In contrast to its name, the book does not really focus on war time strategies, but on strategies that would prevent the outbreak of war. The core of the strategy for Sun Tzu is not to defeat the enemy in battle, but to repress him without fighting. Sun Tzu therefore focuses on the pre-war period as the realm for strategy and hence pays particular attention to diplomacy at this stage. The correct answer is Choice A.

It is therefore common to label Byzantine diplomacy as “war by other means” (Antonucci, 1993: 11). They were unique in their method of involvement in internal affairs of other countries For this aim, the empire initiated a new institution for diplomatic practice, the Bureau of Barbarians, responsible for the imperial post, the supervision of diplomatic officers, and the reception of foreign envoys; and he eventually became the emperor’s chief adviser on foreign affairs. The logothete was also responsible for the internal security of the empire until the 11th century. The Bureau sent envoys on diplomatic missions to barbarian lands in order to gather information from every possible source. This was the main function of it. After the envoy’s return to Byzantium, which took mostly years, the information they had reported were recorded and constituted the essential basis of their knowledge on the weaknesses or strengths of their enemies and/or allies. 

Proxenos is a resident consul but the proxenos were citizens of the city in which they resided, not of the city-state that employed them. If a resident representative was needed in another state, then a resident was given the title of proxenos by the state which he represented. In other words, the proxenos looked after the interests of a foreign state while residing in the state of which he was a citizen. The correct answer is D.

To this end, Tercüme Odası (Translation Room) was established in 1821 and Muslim-Turkish translators began to be trained in this institution and they replaced Dragomans who were the translators during the ad hoc period. The correct answer is D.

The Group of Seven (G7) and The Group of Twenty (G20) The Group of Seven (G7), formerly G8 is a club of industrialised democratic states (France, Germany, Japan, the USA, the UK, Italy and Canada) that meets annually to discuss important economic, financial, and political issues.  The correct answer is A.

Sumerians were the earliest practitioners of diplomacy (3000-2370 BCE). The diplomatic tradition emerged from this site mainly because the Sumerians were the civilization which invented writing sometime in the 4th millennium BCE. In the meantime, Sumeria was the site of the first urban communities consisted of complex social, economic and political structures each of which was ruled by an independent King.

Early records indicate that Sun-Tzu lived in the Warring state era and his very famous work The Art of War was influenced by the increasing violence of this era. In contrast to its name, the book does not really focus on war time strategies, but on strategies that would prevent the outbreak of war. The core of the strategy for Sun Tzu is not to defeat the enemy in battle, but to repress him without fighting. Sun Tzu therefore focuses on the pre-war period as the realm for strategy and hence pays particular attention to diplomacy at this stage. Sun-Tzu makes a number of suggestions for the use of diplomacy mostly before the war, but even usable during and after the war, all of which seem to be very important to be a good diplomacy player in international relations. He first advices to attack the enemy’s strategy before attacking the enemy itself. He then mentions indirect methods for manipulating the enemy’s actions in order to keep away the danger of being attacked. Another strategy Sun-Tzu suggests is to be flexible in strategy in regard to changing circumstances.  Finally, his famous saying of “all war is based on deception” is another piece where his thoughts could be related to the logic of diplomacy.

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Aid (Belgium)

Department of State (USA)

Department of Foreign Affairs (US 1781)

Being aware of the loss of dominance and superiority over the European powers, which had become more powerful starting with colonization and continued with the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, Ottoman rulers used all instruments and institutions of diplomacy. The Industrial Revolution also played a serious role in the erosion of Ottoman power. With the accumulation of capital and boom in economic production, Western states hegemonized the international relations. Te correct answer is E.

From Kautilya’s work, along with other valuable sources, we can derive that in Ancient India, diplomatic dealings were well-developed and structured, particularly in regard to diplomats and the roles they played in diplomacy. There were detailed rules of diplomatic immunities and privileges of the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions and also of the selection and duties of a diplomat. In Ancient India, the functions of diplomats, or envoys as was named at this time, were threefold:

• Declaration of war and peace
• Forging alliances
• Gathering intelligence overtly, and also spying.

The correct answer is Choice E.

New foreign policy”  has the characteristics mentioned below:

• “Foreign policy is made and conducted in complex domestic and international environments.

• Foreign policy results from the work of coalitions of interested domestic and international actors and groups.

• Foreign policy issues are often linked and delinked, reflecting the strength of various parties and their particular concerns.

• The “stuff” of foreign policy derives from issues of domestic politics as well as foreign relations.

• Foreign policy analysis needs to be multilevel and multifaceted in order to confront the complicated sources and nature of foreign policy.

It is widely accepted, as Hamilton mentions, that the beginnings of diplomacy occurred when a human being decided for the first time that hearing a message is better than eating the messenger. At this point, with the decision to assure the safety of a messenger, the primitive rules of diplomacy began to emerge. Messengers were sent from one tribe to another mainly to make peace in a rudimentary way, based on custom and even taboo. These earliest types of diplomacy in primitive societies took the shape of exchanging gifts, in a sense, to buy peace. The correct answer is Choice C.

According to Kautilya, war is what defines inter-state relations. Kautilya defined six forms of foreign policy (from Arthshastra 7.1.13 – 18).

• Peace: entering into a treaty; when the state is weaker than the enemy, it should make peace.
• War: attacking and doing injury; when the state is stronger than the enemy, it should make war.
• Non alignment: staying quiet; when the state is equal with the enemy and neither is capable of harming the other, the state should stay quiet.
• Seeking shelter: When threatened by a stronger enemy the state should seek protection from another stronger state, somewhat forming an alliance.
• Shows of force: When the state is increasing in capabilities, it should augment and mobilize to prepare for war.
• Double-dealing: When a state seeks help for attacking another state, it resorts to peace and war at the same time with different states. 

The first significant diplomatic writer of the twentieth century is Ernest Satow. Satow owes his reputation in diplomatic theory to his book Guide to Diplomatic Practice, which was the first remarkable book in English language about the theory and practice of diplomacy when it was published in 1917. It is a comprehensive study which covers not only the roles and functioning of diplomatic institutions and actors but also gives a historical account of diplomacy.

Hugo Grotius, who is one of the contributors of the diplomatic theory, a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. (Grotius, 1121-1127) The first of these methods is the conference method. The second method is arbitration between parties who do not belong to the same jurisdiction and have no common judge to appeal to, which he considers to be not only convenient but necessary that “Congresses of Christian states were held, where, by them who are no ways interested on one side or other, the differences of contending parties might be made up; and that some means were thought upon to oblige the parties at variance to accept of a peace upon fair and reasonable terms.” What Grotius has suggested is still an important method of conflict resolution in international relations and considered as one of the main functions of diplomacy. The third and the last method to prevent war according to Grotius is to cast lots.

Diplomacy, according to Machiavelli, must be permanent, in the sense that states should have diplomatic representatives, at least in those countries that they have high interests whether they are allies or enemies. Still even though he himself was a diplomat, Machiavelli believed that military power was more important than diplomacy. But because not all states had enough military power to pursue their aims, they needed diplomacy. Diplomacy according to Machiavelli is based on deception. This assumption of diplomacy is closely related to Machiavelli’s conception of human nature which he defines as “For it can be said about men in general that they are ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, hypocritical, cowardly, and greedy.”

French statesmen Richelieu has also formulated ideas on diplomacy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. For this reason he attributed great significance to diplomacy. The main theme of Richelieu’s theory is negotiations.

The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price. According to him a well-trained, qualified ambassador is a sign of value of the prince as well and should be rewarded.

The correct answer is Choice D.

Another contributor of the diplomatic theory is Hugo Grotius, who is a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. Thereofre, the correct option is C.

The Ottoman Empire was one of the dominant powers until the end of 17th century and carried out its diplomatic relations on the basis of superior-inferior dichotomy. They carried out their diplomatic relations on the basis of unilateralism and there was no room in the Ottoman diplomacy for relations on the basis of equality and mutuality. Therefore, they did not adapt the rules of modern diplomacy until early 1790s because they did not want to make concessions to “inferior” states. However, as opposed to the general view that the Ottomans did not take part in diplomatic relations due to the sense of superiority up until the 18th century, they attached great importance to their diplomatic relations from the beginning. 

The nature of new foreign policy shifted from a pure state-centric to a more multi-actor and multi-factorial ground so that it is not purely state-centric.

Yirminci yüzyılın ilk önemli diplomatik yazarı Ernest Satow'dur . Satow diplomatik teoride ününü , 1917'de yayınlandığı zaman diplomasi teorisi ve pratiğiyle ilgili İngilizce dilinde ilk dikkat çeken kitap olan Diplomatik Uygulama Rehberi adlı kitabına borçludur .