The political authorities of the “Old World” were far from being as organized as modern state structures. The main difference between ancient states and modern state structures was lying in the capacity of centralization. The ancient states in the “Old World” were mainly constituted of some local authorities which control a piece of land militarily and economically. These local authorities were brought together under more general state structures borders of which reach out broader territories. Although they resemble medieval empires in terms of their organization, these states lacked the permanent institutions, mainly built upon decentralized structures, and their borders were not very well-defined. What we call “ancient diplomacy” today took place both within and among these states of the “Old World”. The diplomatic practices within an ancient state took place among the local authorities such as feudal lords, chieftains and tribal leaders. These practices vary from mutual visits to trade and security related agreements between them. Although we consider these practices as the forerunners of diplomacy in the ancient world, it should be noted that they were not operated through institutionalized structures. 

Another Florentine diplomat who has contributed to the theory of diplomacy is Francesco Guicciardini. The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price. Thereofre, the correct option is E.

For the first time in Ottoman history, Mehmed II granted capitulations to Venetians in 1454 on the basis of existing custom which was derived from the capitulatory agreement between the Byzantine Empire and Venice. The correct answer is A.

In this regard, immunity was guaranteed multilaterally to assure the credibility and authenticity of the information delivered by the envoys. In other words, the immunity granted to the diplomats and envoys aimed at making the diplomatic crew feel comfortable so that they would not manipulate the message to be delivered in order to guarantee their own security. This diplomatic custom was later institutionalized and legalized in 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, yet it remained as a respected principle mainly after the middle 17th century. 

Policymaking, staffing and supporting abroad missions, coordinating foreign relations, and dealing with foreign diplomats hosted in the home country are among the tasks of foreign ministries.

Although it was an expansionist power with imperial claims, the Ottoman Empire did not neglect diplomacy in the period between 15th and 18th centuries and conducted diplomatic relations with Venice, Genoa, Poland, Russia, Iran, Hungary, Austria, France, Transylvania, Bogdan, Walachia, Ragusa, Georgia, Algeria, Tripoli, Morocco and Marrakech. 

Thucydides was the author of the book, History of the Peloponnesian War.

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. The correct answer is B.

Siena is not among the five major city-states.

In the late Ottoman period, modernization of diplomatic service was followed by the professionalization of ministry of foreign affairs. Before the 19th century, Reis-ül Küttap (Head of Secretaries) was mainly responsible for diplomatic correspondence. This body was established during the reign of Suleyman I and working subject to the Grand Vizier. The mission of Reis-ül Küttap in the state apparatus was to control duties of secretaries in the diplomatic correspondence. The correct answer is D.

In diplomatic history, the term “Interwar Period” refers to the specific period between 1918 and 1939. The correct answer is D.

The Art of War is the famous work of Sun-Tzu.

Modernization and professionalization of Ottoman diplomacy started with Selim III, who was a visionary sultan seeking for modernization and Westernization of Ottoman system in all aspects such as the military, bureaucracy and economy. Therefore, for Selim III, it was necessary for the Ottoman Empire to establish permanent diplomatic missions in European capitals because the sultan was aware that in comparison to the European state system, the Ottoman system was backward. The correct answer is C.

Diplomacy was a necessity for the Byzantine Empire because it had enemies on all of its borders and there was always a threat of invasion while for a certain time it had limited military power. The military force of the Byzantine Empire never exceeded the number of 140.000. While the threat of invasion came from all quarters, e.g., from Nomadic people to Germanic people, from Slavs to Hungarians and Russians, its internal resources were not enough to keep a military permanently in order to give a military response to these threats. Since the rulers of the empire were aware of their military weakness, they first adapted the practices of former civilizations and developed their own way of diplomacy with their political and cultural contributions. For example, they adapted the practices of protocol and dynastic marriages from the Near Eastern civilization, oration as a tool for public speaking from Greece, and the divide and rule tactics from the Roman Empire. In this manner the diplomatic methods they exercised were ranging from the, formation of alliances to dynastic marriages, from exploiting the enemy’s weaknesses, to deception and the use of religion. for a certain time it had limited military power. The military force of the Byzantine Empire never exceeded the number of 140.000. While the threat of invasion came from all quarters, e.g., from Nomadic people to Germanic people, from Slavs to Hungarians and Russians, its internal resources were not enough to keep a military permanently in order to give a military response to these threats. Since the rulers of the empire were aware of their military weakness, they first adapted the practices of former civilizations and developed their own way of diplomacy with their political and cultural contributions. For example, they adapted the practices of protocol and dynastic marriages from the Near Eastern civilization, oration as a tool for public speaking from Greece, and the divide and rule tactics from the Roman Empire. In this manner the diplomatic methods they exercised were ranging from the, formation of alliances to dynastic marriages, from exploiting the enemy’s weaknesses, to deception and the use of religion. In fact, the main motive in the use of diplomacy for the Byzantine Empire was to avoid war, and all diplomatic practice was devoted to this aim. Therefore, the empire used diplomacy as a means of foreign policy continuously, employing more emphasis on it than military means. The Byzantines employed a number of tactics, both overt and covert to achieve their aims through diplomacy rather than military force. It is therefore common to label Byzantine diplomacy as “war by other means” (Antonucci, 1993: 11). They were unique in their method of involvement in internal affairs of other countries. For this aim, the empire initiated a new institution for diplomatic practice, the Bureau of Barbarians. The Bureau of Barbarians as a department of government was responsible for foreign relations, primarily with the barbarians living on the Balkan Peninsula. The correct answer is Choice B.

The term “Old World” here refers to a period of time starting from ancient world to emergence of Renaissance especially in Italian peninsula. The political authorities of the “Old World” were far from being as organized as modern state structures. 

A version of coercive diplomacy is military diplomacy which can be described as the use of force of threat of it to achieve military goals. The use of naval force for the same ends is referred as gunboat diplomacy. the correct answer is C.

Track II diplomacy refers to non-conventional diplomacy conducted by not only diplomatic crews but also by influential individuals such as artists, authors or celebrities.

Envoys were appointed for specific missions with a specific set of instructions; and the type of the diplomatic envoys varied according to the circumstances. They can be simple messengers who carry royal mail, but they can also be plenipotentiary ministers. Diplomatic envoys were chosen from among senior officials of administration. Their primary function involved coordinating diplomatic efforts. Some of them were regarded explicitly as the king’s personal representatives. Diplomatic envoys were protected by their diplomatic status and they were free to journey across boundaries even in times of crisis. In other words, they had a kind of “diplomatic immunity” which was evident in many documents that found in Mari and later in other archives. Even to attest their status, diplomats seemed to have a kind of “diplomatic passport”, on which the name of the holder, the description of his delegation and his destination were written. The correct answer is Choice B.

Hittite diplomacy is best known for the first peace treaty signed in 1270 BCE between Egyptian King Ramses II and Hittite King Hattusili III after the battle of Kadesh in Syria. The Kadesh treaty was signed to end the long war between the Hittites and the Egyptians, which lasted for nearly two centuries for the domination over Syrian region.

Diplomatic immunity is a universal principle of modern diplomacy which refers to legal immunity of diplomats and diplomatic missions. According to diplomatic immunity principle, diplomats are not susceptible to lawsuits and diplomatic missions such that embassies are immune from the intervention of the host country. Diplomatic immunity has been an important custom in the transition to permanent diplomacy. The correct answer is C.