Multi-lateral diplomacy is an outcome of modern diplomacy, which came to exist after the Congress of Westphalia and usually functions through conferences. (See below: Conference Diplomacy) An important step towards multilateral diplomacy was the establishment League of Nations following the end of the First World War. What was novel about the League of Nations, especially in terms of diplomacy was that it served as permanent base for multilateral diplomacy which used be carried out through conferences that met for once and for some days only. Another phenomena that pushed the development of multilateral diplomacy was the significant increase in the number of states since 1945. Multilateral diplomacy has both strengths and weaknesses. On the weak side it may bring certain issues to a gridlock by any of the parties if a desired outcome is not reached. This may postpone or even sweep away the possibility of any solution. On the strong side it serves as a ground for cooperation. This cooperation can be directed to problem-solving as well as goal-setting in issues concerning the parties, which at times may include all states as in the case of League of Nations or United Nations. The correct answer is Choice E.

The first Ottoman Embassy was established in London in 1793 and this was a turning point in Ottoman diplomacy

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. 

Another peculiarity of the ancient Greek diplomacy was that they preferred oral messages to written notes; therefore, there is not a large archive of diplomatic correspondence of ancient Greece. There were three kinds of representatives:

• angelos: a messenger used for brief and specific missions
• keryx: a herald
• proxenos: a resident consul but the proxenos were citizens of the city in which they resided, not of the city-state that employed them. If a resident representative was needed in another state, then a resident was given the title of proxenos by the state which he represented. In other words, the proxenos looked after the interests of a foreign state while residing in the state of which he was a citizen.

In very broad terms it is possible to separate diplomatic relations between states into two, depending on the number of actors, as bilateral diplomacy and multilateral diplomacy. Whereas bilateral diplomacy defines relations between two states multilateral diplomacy defines the relations between more than two such actors. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

Nevertheless, the Ottoman rulers attached great importance to diplomatic relations despite unilateral nature of these relations in order to be a part of world system and power struggle. As opposed to the general view that the Ottomans did not have bilateral relations with the European or Christian states because the Quran orders not establishing relations with infidels and fighting against them (Tuncer, 11), Ottoman rulers were more pragmatic than argued. From the beginning, they established close relations not only with Beyliks (tribes) in Anatolia, but also with the Byzantine Empire. Through inter-tribal or inter-state marriages, they consolidated their power and expanded their territories. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire cannot be regarded as an entity solely ruled by strict Islamic laws, rather it was also influenced by customary laws and local customs. Ottoman Sultans like Mehmed II issued qanunnames (books of law) in accordance with the Turkish state tradition empowered rulers to make laws, so the Ottoman system was not only ruled by religious laws, but also by customary laws. Such a legal system provided flexibility and pragmatism to the policies of the empire. (Yurdusev, 14-15) 

It was the diplomatic system adapted by the states before the establishment of modern, permanent diplomacy in the 14th and 15th centuries. States were sending temporary representatives or missionaries to each other for specific missions. For the solution of problems, signing treaties, declaring their war or peace decisions, etc. rulers were sending their representatives. After the formation of modern diplomacy, states began to adapt professional and permanent institutions and instruments. The Ottoman Empire used ad hoc diplomacy until the end of 18th century. The reign of Selim III, who was closely following the developments in Europe, was a turning point in the adaptation of modern diplomacy. Especially with Mahmud II, the Ottoman Empire began to adapt the rules and institutions of modern diplomacy despite some shortcomings.

Divide and Rule –Divide et Imperia

It was an important strategy for the Roman imperial system. Romans divided the newly conquered peoples into their component units such as tribes; or city-states made separate alliances and treaties with each to control and make them contribute to the defense of the empire in common. The Byzantine Empire adopted this method in its external affairs with divide its enemies and embroil them to each other.

 the Amarna letters contain information about:

• Strategic-military cooperation,

• Treaty negotiations,

• Dynastic marriages,

• Trade regulations

• Strengthening friendly relations

• Negotiating alliances

The correct answer is C.

We find the Amarna letters which contain information about:

• Strategic-military cooperation,

• Treaty negotiations,

• Dynastic marriages,

• Trade regulations

• Strengthening friendly relations

• Negotiating alliances

Bipolar system: In bipolar international system, there are two major powers that are significantly superior to other actors in terms of distribution of power. A perfect example of such an international system is the Cold War term in which the United States and Soviet Union appeared as the two superpowers. The correct answer is E.

In very broad terms it is possible to separate diplomatic relations between states into two, depending on the number of actors, as bilateral diplomacy and multilateral diplomacy. Whereas bilateral diplomacy defines relations between two states multilateral diplomacy defines the relations between more than two such actors. As is defined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the establishment of diplomatic relations between States, and of permanent diplomatic missions, takes place by mutual consent. (Article 2) Establishing diplomatic relations is only one of the facets of recognition for states. Likewise being accepted to an international organization is a sign of acceptance in a broader sense. Recognition by itself does not require the establishment of diplomatic relations but is a necessary prerequisite for establishing diplomatic relations. Similarly breaking of diplomatic relations does not mean the withdrawal of recognition. Breaking up of diplomatic relations is a unilateral act, realised by an announcement of any of the states, on the contrary to bilateral agreement of establishment. States establish mutual relations usually with an agreement that can be in the fashion of an announcement, a joint decision, exchange of notes or issuing of a communiqué and in some rare cases states just encounter without any kind of agreement but just the implication of having agreed to have relations. The correct answer is Choice C.

The constantly widening world of diplomacy requires different methods applied to different cases. This has led to the formulation of different types of diplomacy. Some of them are those that have been used by states for a very long time. But some are relative new and probably would not be considered as diplomacy in the nineteenth or even the significant part of the twentieth century. There is a big variety of diplomacies in this sense. It is not in the capacity of this chapter to dwell upon them all but the most important will be examined.

Secret Diplomacy

Conference and Summit Diplomacies

Coercive Diplomacy

Crisis Diplomacy

Track Two Diplomacy and Multitrack Diplomacy

Economic Diplomacy

Public Diplomacy

Digital Diplomacy

Thereofre, the correct option is E. 

The Great Power Club was composed of five major kingdoms: the kingdom of Hatti, the kingdom of Mittanni, the kingdom of Assyria, the kingdom of Kassite of Babylon and the kingdom of Egypt.

In the Ancient Greek diplomacy,  they preferred oral messages to written notes; therefore, there is not a large archive of diplomatic correspondence of ancient Greece.

There were three kinds of representatives:

• angelos: a messenger used for brief and specific missions

• keryx: a herald

• proxenos: a resident consul but the proxenos were citizens of the city in which they resided, not of the city-state that employed them. If a resident representative was needed in another state, then a resident was given the title of proxenos by the state which he represented. In other words, the proxenos looked after the interests of a foreign state while residing in the state of which he was a citizen.

Envoys were selected from among the prominent members of the state by the city assembly and they were not necessarily qualified persons. They were rather chosen for their political stance and for their association with the state which they were negotiating with. Representatives were first expected to show their oratorical abilities. The number of members in a mission ranged from three to ten men, and they were given brief instructions such as; ratifying treaties by oral oath, inquiring about terms for peace, and solving a dispute in the interest of the community.

However, with regard to foreign policy and diplomacy, there are certain commonalities between the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic.

First of all, the Turkish Republic was established on the same geography despite shrinkage of Ottoman territories after the 18th century. The Straits and geographical location, as a bridge between Europe and Asia, of the Turkish Republic can be considered as important elements of its foreign policy. On the one hand, these elements enable Turkey, as a medium-sized power as opposed to the Ottoman Empire claiming global superiority, to carry out negotiations in order to maximize its interests to the extent possible, but, on the other hand, as a state encircled by regions like the Balkans and the Middle East full of problems forces it to conduct a cautious foreign policy and diplomacy.

Secondly, the mindset of the Republican rulers and diplomats have been shaped by the Ottoman balance of power strategy especially after the 19^th century. Both its founders Atatürk and İnönü and their successors tried hard to increase the number of friends and decrease the number of enemies. Especially during WWII and the Cold War, Turkey tried to establish alliances with Western powers like the Great Britain and France against German and Italian revisionism and expansionism during WWII and the United States against the Soviet claims and threat during the Cold War. The global conjuncture and Turkey’s own interests like protection of territorial integrity and sovereignty, economic development and military modernization necessitated to do so. This also shows the Western-oriented foreign policy and diplomacy since the beginning of modernization and Westernization efforts in the Ottoman Empire by Selim III.

Thirdly, rulers of the Turkish Republic similar to the Ottoman sultans and the statesmen especially during the decline and collapse periods have refrained from wars and they have attached great importance to the solution of problems through diplomacy. In this vein, Turkey became a member of League of Nations (LoN) in 1932 upon its invitation and joined the United Nations (UN) after WWII and NATO in 1952. Protection of regional and global status quo as well as Turkey’s sovereignty and territorial integrity have been the priorities of Turkish statesmen. In addition, when Turkish foreign policy in the Republican era is considered, the dominance of leaders in the formulation of foreign policy can be clearly seen. Starting from Atatürk, dominant figures like İsmet İnönü, Adnan Menderes, Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit, Turgut Özal and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan have become influential figures in Turkish foreign policy. 

Dragomans were responsible for the translation of reports, documents and treaties in the Ottoman Empire especially in the classical age. They were integral parts of the Ottoman diplomacy from the beginning. Dragomans were selected among the people who knew foreign languages. The correct answer is E.

Unipolar system: This is a type of international system in which one hegemon significantly dominates the other actors within the system. A typical example of such an international system is the period of early 1990s. The United States remained as the only superpower after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and dominated the international system. The correct answer is A.

Although it was an expansionist power with imperial claims, the Ottoman Empire did not neglect diplomacy in the period between 15th and 18th centuries and conducted diplomatic relations with Venice, Genoa, Poland, Russia, Iran, Hungary, Austria, France, Transylvania, Bogdan, Walachia, Ragusa, Georgia, Algeria, Tripoli, Morocco and Marrakech. 

Functions: According to the Article 3 of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the functions of a diplomatic mission are representing the sending state in the receiving state, protecting in the receiving state the interests of the sending state and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law, negotiating with the government of the receiving state, ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the government of the sending state and promoting friendly relations between the sending state and the receiving state, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.