France was the first country which initiated a specific department responsible from the foreign policy.

Institutionally, Ottoman sultans were sending agents or envoys to carry out their specific missions in the ad hoc diplomacy period. Although they did not establish permanent embassies in foreign states before the 18th century, the Ottomans allowed foreign states to establish diplomatic missions in the empire. Venice was the first state opened an embassy in Istanbul right after the conquest. It was followed by Poland (1475), Russia (1497), France (1525), Austria (1528), the Great Britain (1583) and the Netherlands (1612). 

Scope: The first thing that has to be defined would be the scope of diplomacy since the other elements such as actors and tasks could only be determined according to how broad the scope is defined. 

After the Congress of Vienna, permanent diplomacy was a model followed by all European powers including the Ottoman Empire.

Nevertheless, the change of dynamics in the European states system with the end of Dark Ages after the 15th century with Renaissance and Reformation movements, on the one hand, and geographical discoveries, on the other, the Ottoman Empire faced new challenges and started to decline. However, the decadence of the Ottoman power cannot be explained only by external factors. In other words, after the 16th century, the empire was not ruled by strong and competent rulers as Mehmed II, Selim I and Suleyman I. The administrative system and the palace were full of problems. In addition, especially after mid-1600s, the Ottoman economy started to weaken with the end of territorial expansions, discovery of new routes and defeats in wars with stronger European states as a result of the formation of modern states and armies. Lastly, but more importantly, the Ottoman military system which was the major source of Ottoman power began to decline after the 16th century. Janissaries as the crux of the Ottoman military power lost their discipline and prestige as well as their adaptation to modern war techniques and tactics.

On the other hand, Ottoman rulers granted certain privileges and rights to non-Muslim states and citizens called capitulations on the basis of Âman system. Capitulations were political, economic and legal privileges benefitted by non-Muslims. As early as the fifteenth century, Mehmed II granted capitulations to Venice. However, this policy was a part of power struggle game. The correct answer is C.

Despite their unilateral nature, the Ottoman rulers made long-lasting agreements with non- Muslims. These treaties were renewed regularly so there was an intention to establish state of peace except several wars in the Ottoman foreign policy. For example, Bayezid II signed an agreement with Pope Innocent VIII. In this treaty, the Sultan and the Pope agreed on the capturing of his brother Cem in France rather than sending him to the foes of the Ottomans in return for the control of Jerusalem by the French King after it had been taken by the Ottoman Empire from Mamluks. (Yurdusev, 16) The deal between the Sultan and the Pope shows the pragmatism of Ottomans in their diplomatic relations.

The main objective of the Ottoman rulers through conducting these pragmatic relations with foreign states was to be an influential actor in the European system. The Sultans carried out cautious diplomatic relations with the European states with considering balance of power in the European states system. Thus, Yurdusev argued that this diplomatic pragmatism triggered, to some extent, the formation of nation states in Europe. On the other hand, as the Ottomans became a powerful empire and a part of this power game, the European states had to take the Ottomans into consideration while making their decisions and implementing their policies, so from time to time they allied with the Ottoman sultan against each other. Therefore, the role of the Ottoman Empire in the European states system facilitated the preservation of status quo. (Yurdusev, 22) Especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman rulers supported the English and Dutch against the Habsburgs, the main enemy of the Ottomans at that time, because these states were the forerunners of European resistance against Habsburgs’ dominance in the continent. On the other hand, the Ottoman rulers benefitted from the religious rivalry in Europe and they supported Protestants and Calvinists against the Catholics because this religious split in the continent was an important tool in the war against Habsburgs. The Ottoman pressure on the Habsburgs triggered the spread of Protestantism in Europe. (Yurdusev, 23) 

Between 630 and 631, many delegations came to Medina; and therefore, this period is named as the Year of Delegation. Most of them were representatives of Arab tribes coming to declare their acceptance of Islam; however, as in the Najran case, there were also Christians without an intention to accept the religion, but to conclude an agreement. The correct answer is B.

The first Ottoman Embassy was established in London in 1793. The correct answer is D.

Diplomacy was a necessity for the Byzantine Empire because it had enemies on all of its borders and there was always a threat of invasion while for a certain time it had limited military power. The military force of the Byzantine Empire never exceeded the number of 140.000. While the threat of invasion came from all quarters, e.g., from Nomadic people to Germanic people, from Slavs to Hungarians and Russians, its internal resources were not enough to keep a military permanently in order to give a military response to these threats. Since the rulers of the empire were aware of their military weakness, they first adapted the practices of former civilizations and developed their own way of diplomacy with their political and cultural contributions. The correct answer is D.

Diplomacy remained, for the most part, rudimentary in ancient Greece, but there is no doubt that a pattern had emerged. The structure of the inter-state system caused another diplomatic formation as a means of foreign policy, forming alliances. In this line, considerable attention was given to the winning of allies and making of treaties during the 5th and especially 4th centuries. The duration of the alliances were mainly specified, particularly in the 5th century since alliances were founded on the basis of allying for war. In other words, city-states, aware of their weaknesses in face of each other, formed alliances in case of a threat of war. In the 4th century, alliance treaties began to be specified in duration as for ever, and the reason for this may be the new understanding of inter-state relations that alliances shall be based on peace rather than war (Mosley, 2001: 321-322). 

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Thereofre, the correct option is A.

France was again the first country which initiated a specific department responsible from the foreign policy. In Ancien Régime, Henry III initiated a department and gave the sole responsibility in foreign policy to a specific department under the government as early as 1589. Yet, it should be noted that this department was far from a ministerial structure compared to modern ministries of foreign affairs. In fact, religious affairs were the dominant theme in the agenda of this department, as it was in contact mainly with the authorities in Vatican. In fact, almost all of the personnel working in this department were coming from a clergy background. Famous Cardinal Richelieu made certain reforms in 1630s to restructure this department in a more organized manner. However, the emergence of a ministry as a modern department of foreign affairs had to wait until the overthrow of the Ancien Régime. Still, France was earlier than other European states to initiate a ministry whose sole responsibility was to conduct foreign policy.

Crisis diplomacy defines the international efforts to manage and solve a crises. The need for crisis diplomacy has increased significantly since the world has become more interconnected and a crisis occurring in one region of the world becomes the concern of other states, on both regional and international level. It is to everyone’s knowledge that a major part of diplomacy is carried out in secrecy. Secret diplomacy refers to diplomatic engagements that take place without the knowledge of the public. However it does not mean that the diplomatic meetings that occur behind closed doors are secret diplomacy. If the term was defined in this way, almost all diplomatic intercourse would have to be defined as secret diplomacy. Neither does it mean confidentiality. What is meant by secret diplomacy is that the very existence of certain diplomatic meetings are kept secret from domestic and foreign publics.

Coercive diplomacy defines the use of limited force or the threat of using force in diplomatic relations, with the aim of achieving desired ends. This makes coercive diplomacy a type of engagement that differs from the generally accepted conceptualisation that diplomacy involves peaceful means in interstate relations.

Conference diplomacy refers to the multilateral diplomatic negotiations that take place in international conferences. But this does necessarily mean that all negotiations also occur with the participation of all actors. Bilateral or limited multilateral negotiations also take place among the participants of conference diplomacy.

Summit diplomacy refers to the meetings of heads of states or governments. It can be bilateral, brining the leaders of two states together or multilateral with the participation of several leaders. It also can be ad-hoc or institutionalised and regularly take place. The correct answer is Choice C.

The first known diplomatic letter was a message sent by the King of Ebla (in northern Syria) to the kingdom of Hamazi (north of Iran today), which shows a similar style of language and contend of modern diplomacy. This letter provides a clear evidence of the existence of a well performing mechanism, in which both sides knew the rules. The letter was not written by the king himself, but through the voice of an official, and was not directed to the Hamazi King but to his envoy.  Since the Ebla region had priority in trade, diplomacy was mainly a part of their trade relations, the reflection of which could also be seen in the Ebla letter.

Polylateralism is the conduct of relations between official entities (such as a state, several states acting together, or a state-based international organisation) and at least one unofficial, non-state entity in which there is a reasonable expectation of systematic relationships, involving some form of reporting, communication, negotiation, and representation, but not involving mutual recognition as sovereign, equivalent entities. The correct answer is D.

In the ad hoc diplomacy period, agents or envoys were sent to foreign states for different purposes. They were assigned by the sultan for signing peace treaties or trade agreements, peace proposals, carrying out peace negotiations or mediating between two states, negotiating the clauses of treaties, establishing or consolidating friendly relations, collecting debts of Ottomans, learning the opinions and policies of the states about the empire, declaring the change of throne, giving presents of the sultan, delivering letters from the sultan, declaring an Ottoman victory, congratulating a new monarch on behalf of the sultan, joining coronations of European monarchs, inviting European monarchs to certain ceremonies and claiming taxes. (Tuncer,12) 

Since the rulers of the empire were aware of their military weakness, the Byzantines first adapted the practices of former civilizations and developed their own way of diplomacy with their political and cultural contributions. For example, they adapted the practices of protocol and dynastic marriages from the Near Eastern civilization, oration as a tool for public speaking from Greece, and the divide and rule tactics from the Roman Empire. In this manner the diplomatic methods they exercised were ranging from the, formation of alliances to dynastic marriages, from exploiting the enemy’s weaknesses, to deception and the use of religion. The Byzantines employed a number of tactics, both overt and covert to achieve their aims through diplomacy rather than military force. 

Venice was the first state opened an embassy in Istanbul right after the conquest.

Three main important developments can be noted for the full transition to permanent diplomacy: professionalization and recruitment, administrative structuration and emergence of ministries.