Track II diplomacy is a term that refers to non-conventional diplomacy conducted by not only diplomatic crews, but also by influential individuals (such as artists, authors or celebrities). Track II diplomatic practices usually take place during mediation efforts, formation of peace missions and campaign for more universal causes instead of a political agenda of a specific state. In other words, Track II diplomacy is a non-official effort to facilitate the official diplomatic context towards a cooperative solution.

Bilateral diplomacy is the oldest form of diplomatic practice consisting of two states meeting to solve their problems. Bilateral diplomacy is conducted between two states, but, initially, these two states have to recognize each other to establish diplomatic missions and carry out diplomatic practice. Until the end of WWI, bilateral diplomacy kept its hegemony in the international relations. 

During the 1980s, Turkey had to discover the importance of the strategic relations with the Western world once again as the change of regime Iran and the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan increased the tension between the two blocks.

Once a successful mediated negotiation is finalized, the next step is to officialize the agreed conditions through a diplomatic agreement of which clauses would be binding for all signatory parties. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Peace accords after long standing conflicts inevitably have to address sensitive issues such as powersharing in the post-conflict term, transitional justice, war crimes and rehabilitation and reintegration of former combatants. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Many middle and small-sized powers are much more preoccupied with their survival. Compared to global powers, their room of maneuvering is limited. Their success in ensuring survival hinges on their ability to play global powers off against each other, viz. external balancing, rather than solely investing in their own material capabilities, viz. internal balancing (Goodby, 2014, 31-39). Their foreign policy behaviors aim primarily at mitigating the negative consequences of global power competitions on their internal stability and external sovereignty. Compared to global powers, middle and small-sized powers find it difficult to pursue value-oriented normative foreign policies mainly because their material power capabilities are limited. 

Kautilya defined the state system as a ruthless realistic system which was determined by self-interest, compatible with the structure of the existing state system of India in that time. India at this period was mostly composed of a number of small independent states, being in a rivalry with each other with the exception of the Magadha kingdom. Kautilya played an important role in the fall of the Magadha kingdom and the rise to power of the Mauryan dynasty. In fact, Kautiya was a political realist; and the key theme of his theory represented in his book was war. According to Kautilya, war is what defines inter-state relations. Kautilya defined six forms of foreign policy.

• Peace: entering into a treaty; when the state is weaker than the enemy, it should make peace.
• War: attacking and doing injury; when the state is stronger than the enemy, it should make war.
• Non alignment: staying quiet; when the state is equal with the enemy and neither is capable of harming the other, the state should stay quiet.
• Seeking shelter: When threatened by a stronger enemy the state should seek protection from another stronger state, somewhat forming an alliance.
• Shows of force: When the state is increasing in capabilities, it should augment and mobilize resources to prepare for war.
• Double-dealing: When a state seeks help for attacking another state, it resorts to peace and war at the same time with different states. The correct answer is Choice E.

Concert of Europe is a system established in Europe with the Vienna Congress on the basis of balance of power strategy to protect status quo after Napoleonic Wars between 1800 and 1815. In the early 1800s, France under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, who had declared his empire with the fall of Republican regime in France, was fighting with certain European states in order to expand its territories especially eastwards. With the defeat of Napoleon in Russia and Great Britain, European states decided to establish such a system in order to prevent the birth and rule of Napoleon-like figures and states. Concert of Europe system worked until the First World War (WWI) despite some regional conflicts and wars. However, with the polarization in the early 1900s, this system was replaced by alliances and divisions that paved the way for WWI.

The revision of the Lasuanne regulations on the status of Turkish Straits through the Montreaux Convention in 1936, the incorporation of Hatay region into Turkey in 1939, and the settlement of the Mousul question and the border dispute with Iraq in 1926 are all examples to the use of international law and diplomacy in Turkish foreign policy.

There are many advantages of multilateral conferences like focusing on specific issues and motivating the parties to find a solution or reach an agreement in a limited period of time. As a result of collaboration among participants, it develops closer relations between states. Finding a solution or reaching an agreement is beneficial for all parties because it increases their prestige and popularity. Due to the limited period of time, multilateral conferences force parties to focus on specific issues and come up with solutions. (İskit, 307-308) On the other hand, multilateral conferences are used by powerful states to make their propaganda as dominant states in the international arena as well as drawing the attention of all states to global problems such as environmental and economic issues. Joining such conferences and organizations increase the prestige of participants. On the contrary, states not joining these multilateral entities may lose their prestige and the right to have a say in ultimate decisions. Non-participating states may suffer from the decisions made against them in these conferences. Therefore, all the states having an interest in such meetings push hard for participation. Furthermore, multilateral diplomacy provides a medium for the development of bilateral relations because through bilateral meetings or social events during multilateral conferences such as NATO and EU meetings, heads or missions of states may develop their contacts and relations. Lastly, multilateral conferences may ensure compliance with agreements or decisions made by the states better than bilateral ones due to the pressure of other states and world public opinion. 

A diplomatic agreement or protocol is a binding legal text produced through negotiations between disputing parties to institutionalize the conditions agreed. Diplomatic agreements may focus a wide array of issues ranging from peacemaking to visa regimes, from trade to usage of bordering rivers.

Considering its longevity and organization, the Roman Empire contributed little to the development of diplomacy. This may be explained by their will to impose their policies on others instead of negotiating. 

It is widely accepted that the contribution of Romans to diplomacy is much more related to the international law and is represented in the theory, not the practice, of diplomacy.

In the early years of the Roman Republic, procedures similar to those developed in Greece were used. People were expressing their will through popular assemblies, and therefore were arbiters of diplomatic issues such as war, peace and treaties. Envoys from foreign powers never came before the assemblies of the people. However, as Rome came to power, the Senate took over the authority and gained a disproportionate influence, along with the right of choosing and instructing envoys and of receiving incoming embassies. After the empire was established, diplomacy turned to be part of regular government policy which was in the hands of the emperor, despite the Senate remained.

According to Eurasianism, Russia is both a European and Asian country at the same time and Russia’s historical mission is to unite the diverse communities in the Eurasian region under Russia’s moral and political leadership. Russia is the geopolitical hegemon of the Eurasian region and without strong Russian leadership neither Russia nor other Eurasian communities would be in a position to restrain western and eastern encroachments. Given Russia’s foreign and security polices over the last decade, one could confidently argue that Eurasianism has now become the dominant school of thought in Russia.

If states are mainly motivated in their external relations by the concern of maximizing their material power capabilities as well as ensuring their long-term survival, interests dominate their foreign policy choices. 

Ultimate aim for negotiation is to reach an agreement which avoids use of force and bring a peaceful solution to the problem. Once a successful mediated negotiation is finalized, the next step is to officialize the agreed conditions through a diplomatic agreement of which clauses would be binding for all signatory parties. A diplomatic agreement or protocol, in this context, is a binding legal text produced through negotiations between disputing parties to institutionalize the conditions agreed. Therefore, the correct option is D.

After the Napoleonic wars, which shook Europe thoroughly, European states established the Concert of Europe system based on balance of power in 1815 which protected status quo, despite some regional wars, in Europe until WWI.

Concert of Europe

It is a system established in Europe with the Vienna Congress on the basis of balance of power strategy to protect status quo after Napoleonic Wars between 1800 and 1815. In the early 1800s, France under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, who had declared his empire with the fall of Republican regime in France, was fighting with certain European states in order to expand its territories especially eastwards. With the defeat of Napoleon in Russia and Great Britain, European states decided to establish such a system in order to prevent the birth and rule of Napoleon-like figures and states. Concert of Europe system worked until the First World War (WWI) despite some regional conflicts and wars. However, with the polarization in the early 1900s, this system was replaced by alliances and divisions that paved the way for WWI.