The financial crisis that hit western economies in 2008 severely seems to have turned all such western assumptions upside down. The economic crisis in 2008 has not only weakened the specter of the EU to become a global power, both in economic and normative senses, but also made it abundantly clear that the success of the American economic model has been to a significant extent tied to the interdependent economic relations developed with the non-western world, most notably China. The crisis and its aftermath have made it unavoidably clear that the United States is today the most indebted country on earth whereas China the number one creditor country. Besides, majorities across the globe seem to believe that China, the aspiring hegemon, is on the rise whereas the United States, the incumbent hegemon, in terminal decline.

Turkey’s membership in NATO since 1952 and the ongoing accession negotiations with the European Union are now the most important dimensions of Turkish foreign policy.

Win-set is a term coined by Robert Putnam in his famous article that he developed a framework for foreign policy decision-making (Putnam, 1988). According to Putnam’s framework, win-set of an actor can be defined as any desirable outcome from an international bargaining process. In other words, any outcome within the range of its win-set would be considered as gain by the actor. The formation of this win-set, according to Putnam, is directly related with the domestic political dynamics. Therefore, win-sets that determine the foreign policy agenda of a country is directly connected with the domestic politics of that country, according to Putnam’s framework. Therefore, the correct option is A.

The immigrant nature of the American society led the founders of the republic to build their country on the basis of liberal, democratic and pluralist norms, further enshrining the principles of individual freedom, free entrepreneur-ship, limited government and checks and balances in the Constitution. 

Enforcement of diplomatic agreements is also an important topic to address. When a diplomatic agreement is signed, the final step for it to be put into practice is the ratification process. Ratification is simply the approval of an agreement by the domestic agents of a country. Therefore, the correct option is D.

The election of Barack Obama to presidency in late 2008 can be read not only as the demonstration of the frustration of the American electorate with the policies of the Bush administration but also the growing need to adjust to the emerging dynamics of the post-American world order. Despite Donald Trump’s strong criticisms of Obama administrations’ foreign policy practices, the former appears to continue with the basic foreign policy strategy of the latter with some nuances. Both rejected nation-building exercises in foreign countries and adopted a more realist and pragmatic foreign policy approach than a liberal one. However, whereas Obama was of more ‘multilateralist’, Trump seems to be more ‘bilateralist’ and ‘unilateralist’.

Win-set is a term coined by Robert Putnam in his famous article that he developed a framework for foreign policy decision-making (Putnam, 1988). According to Putnam’s framework, win-set of an actor can be defined as any desirable outcome from an international bargaining process. In other words, any outcome within the range of its win-set would be considered as gain by the actor. The formation of this win-set, according to Putnam, is directly related with the domestic political dynamics. Therefore, win-sets that determine the foreign policy agenda of a country is directly connected with the domestic politics of that country, according to Putnam’s framework.

Since the second half of the nineteenth century Turkey’s efforts to join the key Western/ European international organizations, viz. external Westernization, has gone hand in hand with the transformation process at home in line with the constitutive norms and values of Western international community, viz. internal Westernization. 

The key international organizations, such as the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, World Bank and NATO all embody the American principles and preferences. However, the Warsaw Pact was established by the Soviet Union. 

Russia is a multi-lingual, multi-ethic and multicultural state and this pushes Russian security elites to put an overwhelming stress on Russia’s territorial integrity and national sovereignty over all other concerns.

Russia’s objections to the primacy of the liberal western order also emanate from its peculiar political and cultural values. Unlike the developed western economies which are built on the capitalist values, Russian economy very much relies on the export of commodities in a semi-close economy, such as gas and oil. Unlike the Chinese model in which capitalist modernization process could go hand in hand with authoritarian state policies, Russia offers a particular example of illiberal societies in which the state is extremely involved in economics, social and political life.

By the time the WW2 came to the end, the U.S. had already become the most powerful global actor ever seen in terms of material power capabilities and the ability to help shape the world in its own image. 

After the Cold War ended and the threat stemming from the Soviet Union disappeared, Turkey’s attitude towards the Alliance has begun to change. In order to understand the dynamics of Turkey’s changing attitude towards the Alliance better, it would be useful to shed light on how Turkey’s security and identity definitions evolved. This situation has weakened NATO’s special and privileged position in the definition of Turkey’s foreign and security policies, for the need to rely on NATO’s nuclear security umbrella has dwindled. Besides, as Turkey’s maneuvering capability increased and its capacity to help shape regional developments became stronger, it has gradually become a necessity that Turkey adopts different methods and tools in its diplomacy.  

Turkey’s relations with Russia and Iran have dramatically improved as Turkey has gradually left the NATO-centered foreign and security policy mentality behind. This remains so despite the fact that Turkey has been at odds with Russia over the course of developments in Syria and Ukraine.

Multilateral diplomacy is literally defined as diplomatic relations between more than two states. It is also known as “conference diplomacy” or “parliamentary diplomacy” because multilateral diplomatic relations are mainly conducted through conferences and face-to-face interaction between leaders or missions of states.

Turkey initially opposed to the appointment of Denmark’s then-Prime Minister Rasmussen as NATO Secretary-General. The offensive attitude adopted by Rasmussen in the cartoon crisis against Muslims in 2005 was effective in Turkey’s opposition.

Besides Renaissance in the 14th century, Reformation which spread Europe from Germany after the 15th century played an important role in the formation of modern diplomacy because it accelerated the secularization of regimes and the formation of modern states in today’s understanding.