Negotiation can be defined as an attempt to explore and reconcile conflicting positions in order to reach an acceptable outcome. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Canada played a significant role in the gathering of Ottawa Convention on Ban on Land Mines. As a medium sized state, Canada has opened itself a space in world politics by initiating such an important process which turned into a binding agreement for more than 140 countries.

Lastly, high-level meetings can be defined as meetings of leaders within the context of their official visits. Especially, newly elected leaders visit foreign countries and meet their counterparts. Such visits provide information about policies and characteristics and opinions of their counterparts. In addition, leaders aim at developing friendly relations and economic relations with the host country. To sum up, like bilateral and multilateral diplomacy, summit diplomacy is an important instrument of modern diplomacy. However, it needs to be underlined that these instruments are not mutually-exclusive. In other words, summit diplomacy can be used as a part of bilateral or multilateral diplomacy. Like bilateral and multilateral diplomacy, summit diplomacy has some advantages and disadvantages. The efficiency of these diplomatic instruments depend on the power and capabilities of states as well as the institutions using these instruments. Diplomatic missions, ministries of foreign affairs and non-state actors such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multi-national companies (MNCs) are basic institutions of modern diplomacy. 

A few centuries after Amarna diplomacy, another diplomatic system emerged between Hittite and Egypt. Hittite diplomacy was also a well-developed system, embracing all preceding diplomatic tools and rules of conduct. The nuance of the Hittite system was its different formulization which based mainly on treaties. These treaties were concluded either between kings or the Hittite King and his vassals. They were written in a structured pattern and they included the information about the Hittite King, conditions that brought the parties into forming an alliance, reciprocal obligations, a list of witnesses and the rules to be applied in case of disloyalty. The correct answer is Choice B.

Regular summits provide basis for negotiations, but their success is based on the frequency and duration. Frequently organized and long meetings enable the participants to reach some conclusions and solve problems. Moreover, due to the length of such meetings, there is room for re-negotiation unless parties don’t reach a conclusion in the first trial. In time, as these summits are regularly convened, their principles are specified and their efficiency increases. More importantly, regular meetings allow leaders to prepare before sessions and learn details of issues discussed in these meetings as well as characteristics and tendencies of their counterparts. Summits are effective tools to conclude negotiations discussed in international forums successfully. In order to reach conclusions satisfactory for both sides, leaders push hard for succeed in these summits, so the “diplomatic momentum” between two summits continues. Regular meetings of European Union (EU) leaders are important examples of these meetings.

Westphalia Treaty This treaty is regarded as the beginning of modern and secular state formation in diplomatic history. Westphalia Treaty can be considered as the first international conference of the European states which ended Thirty Years War between Habsburgs and Bourbons in 1648. With this treaty, division of Holy Roman Empire into more than three hundred principalities was recognized and the position of France in the European continent strengthened. After Westphalia Treaty, formation of independent states in Europe accelerated.

The EU is by far the most successful example of international institutions aiming at transcending traditional/modern interstate relations through the formation of collective identities and supranational institutions.

Mediation is a non-coercive, non-violent and ultimately nonbinding form of intervention

Turkey tried to strike a balance between pursuing a more independent/multidirectional foreign policy stance on the one hand and increasing its efforts to solidify its presence in the Western international community on the other in 1990s.

Multilateral diplomacy is literally defined as diplomatic relations between more than two states. It is also known as “conference diplomacy” or “parliamentary diplomacy” because multilateral diplomatic relations are mainly conducted through conferences and face-to-face interaction between leaders or missions of states. Its origins go back to Vienna Congress convened in 1815 after Napoleonic Wars when European powers came up with the idea of balance of power strategy which sustained peace in Europe until WWI. Multilateral diplomacy became popular in the 20th century because problems between states turned into global problems such as peace and security, environment, health, migration, etc. and international actors understood that such problems had to be negotiated and solved through multilateral diplomacy. The rise of democracy and its ideals after WWII resulted in the democratization of diplomacy and diplomatic practices. More importantly, the accountability of states to their domestic public opinion as well as world public opinion necessitated the establishment of the instruments and institutions of multilateral diplomacy. As a result, multilateral conferences or organizations aim to provide the support of all parties in the solution of global problems which require support and initiative of all sides. There are many advantages of multilateral conferences like focusing on specific issues and motivating the parties to find a solution or reach an agreement in a limited period of time. As a result of collaboration among participants, it develops closer relations between states. Finding a solution or reaching an agreement is beneficial for all parties because it increases their prestige and popularity. Due to the limited period of time, multilateral conferences force parties to focus on specific issues and come up with solutions. (İskit, 307-308) On the other hand, multilateral conferences are used by powerful states to make their propaganda as dominant states in the international arena as well as drawing the attention of all states to global problems such as environmental and economic issues. Joining such conferences and organizations increase the prestige of participants. On the contrary, states not joining these multilateral entities may lose their prestige and the right to have a say in ultimate decisions. 

Hatay was incorporated into Turkey in 1939.

Diplomacy has always been the privilege of state elites in Turkey. It is during the process of Europeanization and democratization that civil society has finally begun to acquire an important role in Turkish diplomacy. It is now the case that both elected politicians are more knowledgeable than before about foreign policy and diplomatic issues and think tanks have mushroomed as institutional platforms offering expert-help to decision makers. Turkish rulers have also inherited an imperial mentality from the Ottoman era in that Turkey has long been seen as the continuation of the Empire. The imperial mentality also manifests itself in the way how Turkish rulers interact with their counterparts in other countries. Turkish rulers tend to speak with foreigners as if today’s Turkey is the Ottoman Empire of the sixteenth century. Longing for respect, equality and status very much shapes Turkey’s relations with much powerful countries. Imperial mentality also suggests that Turkey holds itself responsible for the well-being of people living in the post-Ottoman geography. The practice of defining Turkey as a responsible diplomatic actor that should contribute to the solution of regional and global humanitarian, developmental and security problems has strengthened during the reign of Justice and Development Party governments since 2002. The imperial mentality seems to have made itself appear in the foreign policy discourse of the AKP era politicians. For example, former Prime Minster Ahmet Davutoglu quite often said that the scope of Turkish diplomacy is global and Turkey should act as an order-creator country in its environment. The circles that see Turkey through imperial eyes find it difficult to understand that the Republic of Turkey constitutes a break with the Ottoman past. 

Ad hoc summits, on the other hand, are convened to solve specific problems or discuss specific issues as well as to create diplomatic momentum. Camp David meetings in 1978 led by Jimmy Carter to discuss peace settlement between Egypt and Israel with the participation of Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin can be regarded as an example of ad hoc summit. After twelve days of negotiations, both sides agreed on signing a peace agreement. Main objective of an ad hoc summit is to create a symbolic milestone for solution of a specific problem between states. Another example of ad hoc summits is funeral ceremonies of leaders. In these summits, leaders and their missions meet and discuss certain issues as well as develop their relations. 

Active Russian agency in the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and BRICSs should be read as Russia’s growing determination to offer an alternative world order to the one shaped by western powers.

United Nations This institution was created by the victorious states of WWII which defeated Fascism and its expansionist policies. Main actors in the UN are the United States, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), the Great Britain, France and China. The basic objective of the UN is to protect sovereignty of its member states and world peace. However, when the crises and regional wars in the world since its establishment are taken into consideration, it can be securely argued that the UN has reached its aims far from ideally. This stems from its internal problems like the veto rights of the permanent members of the Security Council. (five states stated above) Especially during the Cold War, it became a leverage between superpowers to legitimize their actions and put pressure on each other. Today, the UN has about two hundred members and it has various branches like UNICEF (UN Children’s Fund), UNESCO (UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), WFP (World Food Programme), etc. dealing with certain world problems

Evolution of diplomatic instruments and institutions triggered after the French Revolution with the formation of nation states in today’s understanding. As time passed, forms of these tools have changed. The last turning point in this process can be regarded as the globalization era after 1980s. 

However, professionalization of diplomatic institutions started with the Westphalia Treaty in 1648 after which modern and secular states began to be established. This treaty is regarded as the beginning of modern and secular state formation in diplomatic history. Westphalia Treaty can be considered as the first international conference of the European states which ended Thirty Years War between Habsburgs and Bourbons in 1648. With this treaty, division of Holy Roman Empire into more than three hundred principalities was recognized and the position of France in the European continent strengthened. After Westphalia Treaty, formation of independent states in Europe accelerated.