Formal mediation processes start after the authorization of a person by usually an international organization. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Westernization is also thought of a security strategy in that Turkey would feel itself safe and secure if it came closer to the West/Europe and its Western/European identity were recognized as such by Westerners/Europeans (Oğuzlu, 2003, 285- 299). Given that the Ottoman Empire came to an end at the hands of the Western European nations, the founding fathers of the Republic assumed that Turkey’s security would improve, if Europeans saw Turkey as a member of the Western/European family of nations.

This process has both negative and positive connotations in the context of Turkish diplomatic history. Turks love and hate Westerners simultaneously. The negative experiences of the Ottoman past would assumingly be left behind if Turkey completed its Westernization process. However, whenever Westerners/Europeans questioned the credentials of Turkey’s Western identity, the dominant view on the part of the majority of Turks happened to be that Westerners did never and would never recognize Turkey as Western/European. For example, the reluctance of Europeans to admit Turkey to EU membership has generally been interpreted as the continuation of the traditional European attitude towards Turkey, according to which Turks have been among the constitutive others of Europeans.

Switzerland as a “neutral country” for more than 600 years (Kriesi and Trechsel 2008), offered mediation to Spanish and Catalonian parties after emergence of crisis following the independence referendum in Catalonia in 2017.

Turkey has at the same time paid an utmost care not to veto any particular decision should all other allies agree on. Turkey has not wanted to be seen as the maverick within the Alliance. The best example of this attitude took place on the occasion of NATO’s military operation in Libya. Turkey initially opposed to NATO’s intervention in Libya. This operation was at the beginning launched by Britain and France outside NATO framework and then taken over by the Alliance.

After WWI, the Allies which defeated Entente powers agreed on the establishment of a multilateral organization to protect world peace and collective security. In addition, they sought for creating a basis for solution of problems via discussion among states. As a result, League of Nations (LoN) was established in 1920 to provide such a basis for multilateralism.

The dispute between Argentina and Uruguay on the Uruguay River is mediated by the King of Spain.

The notion of sphere of influence occupies an important place in the Russian geopolitical thinking.

The first ministry of foreign affairs in today’s understanding was established in France in the 1620s by Cardinal Richelieu after three centuries from the establishment of modern diplomatic missions. 

League of Nations was the predecessor of the United Nations which was established by the victorious states of WWI on January 10, 1920. The Great Britain, France, Italy and the United States were the main actors in this system. It was established to protect world peace and solve problems among states. However, due to its internal problems like strategies and policies of its main actors towards the losers of WWI, it became futile less than two decades. With its inability to prevent Italian invasion of Abyssinia, Japanese invasion of Manchuria and Nazi invasion of Austria and Czechoslovakia, the prestige of the institution dramatically decreased and these developments resulted in the eruption of WWII.

Informal mediation is a mediation practice in which conflicting parties voluntarily pick a third party mediator to intervene in the conflict and mediate the parties. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Former president of Finland, Martti Ahtisaari has served as a mediator in the settlement of various conflicts varying from conflict between the Indonesian government and Aceh region to Kosovo conflict (Ahtisaari, 2008; Perrit, 2010). In fact, Ahtisaari became a prominent figure in international mediation practices especially after his retirement from Finnish politics and took initiative himself to prompt international society to take more active initiative in the settlement of international crises. For his efforts, he was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 2008.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). These are non-profit, voluntary citizens’ organizations acting on national, regional or international levels out of the jurisdiction of states. They provide monitoring for the implementation of decisions and treaties on various issues ranging from environment to human rights. 

Turkey supported NATO’s expansion toward Poland, Czech Republic and Hungary; Turkey participated in and led the multinational NATO forces in Afghanistan; Turkey took part in NATO’s limited involvement in Libya in 2011; Turkey let NATO install radar facilities of the missile defense system in its territories; and Turkey encouraged the Alliance in its efforts to help radiate NATO’s values to the countries, which are not to be NATO members, within the framework of NATO’s Partnership for Peace Program.

On the other hand, global powers are in a much better position than middle and small-sized powers to ground their foreign policies on the basis of both tangible interests and intangible values. The immense material power capabilities at their disposal empower them in their attempts at shaping the external milieu, rather than merely responding to external stimuli in a reactionary manner. That is also to say that adopting a soft-power oriented foreign policy approach is likely to be the prerogative of strong global powers. Investing in value projection abroad and relying on ‘power of attraction’ in dealing with others indirectly require a good deal of hard power capability. Global powers do not only feel secure in terms of their territorial integrity but also find it easy to parley their immense material power capabilities to value-oriented transformative policies abroad.

Unlike some middle powers and many small-sized powers, global powers have the luxury of helping bring into existence a particular external environment to their liking, as well as making use of the existing power balances within the system to maximize their material power capabilities. Stated somewhat differently, global powers do not only aim at maximizing their power capabilities at the expense of their rivals but also endeavor to midwife a particular external environment that reflects their values and norms (Mearsheimer, 2003). 

The EU High Representative for security and foreign policy is in charge of the European External Action Service that can be considered as the ministry of foreign affairs of the European Union.

As a result of the balance of power strategy established in Europe with the Vienna Congress, multilateral diplomacy was the major diplomatic instrument in the 19th century. With the decline of Ottoman power in this period and the need to make alliances with the European powers in order to survive, Ottoman rulers did not hesitate to join multilateral conferences to solve their problems in the international arena. 

Another peculiarity of the ancient Greek diplomacy was that they preferred oral messages to written notes; therefore, there is not a large archive of diplomatic correspondence of ancient Greece. There were three kinds of representatives: • angelos: a messenger used for brief and specific missions. tHe correct answer is E.

Rather than subscribing to the modern understanding of forging international relations on the basis of clear-cut inside-outside distinctions, the success of the EU emanates from its ability to have brought into existence a new understanding thereby its foreign policy takes it legitimacy from the common ‘we’ feeling among members. While the intensity and depth of this feeling is much higher among member states, external actors also feel themselves identified with the EU to different degrees.