According to the Rational Actor Model, leaders do not decide subjectively.

The correct choice is E.

National role conceptualizations refer to the way in which ruling elites define the mission and vision of their countries.

Behaviorist approaches differ from the traditional approaches in the sense that they focus on processes and motives of foreign policy-making. Behavioural approaches have developed as part of the methodological critiques of rational choice theory. According to this, rationality is not absolute and is constrained by other dynamics that should be included in the analysis of foreign policy. Traditional approaches use rational-choice theory as a methodology, focus on a unified decision-making body in the form of the state, have inquiries about foreign policy, and base their explanation on systemic factors.

Realist theories were formulated in the post-Second World War era, influenced by the idea that idealist theories failed since they proved unsuccessful in preventing or even foreseeing another world war.

Micro decisions are also called administrative decisions and take an enormous place within foreign policy decisions. These decisions are narrow in scope, include a low threat, and handled at lower levels of foreign policy bureaucracy. Examples are, authorization of a visa, responding a request coming from an embassy, arrangements for hosting foreign missions, and so forth. Micro decisions are supposed to be depending upon macro decisions, for instance, when the relations of two countries spoil the routine visa policies and arrangements which are part of micro decision would change depending on the reversal of bilateral relations.

Structural realism does single out distribution of material power capabilities among states and the anarchical structure of international system as the most important explanatory factor in this regard and turns a blind eye to the potential impact of individual and internal factors on foreign policy. The correct answer is A.

The central belief in case-study approach is that any explanation of foreign policy behaviours through generalisations would cause the loss of unique factors that make up a foreign policy action and creating patterns, models and theories, and trying to fit the foreign policy behaviour of states into these, ignore the essence of foreign policy that is being explained (Tayfur, 1994, 126). According to this approach, each state has different social, historical, cultural backgrounds which consequently differentiate their foreign policies.

Classical realism puts the main emphasis on individual factors and prioritizes the role of leaders.

The correct choice is D.

Idealism

Being formulated after the First World War, idealist theory of IR has been concerned with ways to prevent wars. Consequently, they opt out war as a foreign policy instrument in their analysis. Their approach to human nature is inspired by liberalism, and hence optimistic, in the sense that it perceives human nature as good and inclined to cooperation rather than conflict. Therefore, the causes of war cannot be found in human nature. The human beings are all rational in their behaviours. It is due to rationality that idealists believe that human beings would deny war and seek and support ways that would build and sustain peace. The correct answer is E.

The level of analysis was introduced to IR studies by Kenneth Waltz in his book Man, the State and War.

• The degree of states’ maneuvering capability would be the highest in multipolar systems because states would be able to align with multiple powers, play one power off against another, and change alliance relations easily
• Bipolar systems would more heavily constrain states, because there would only exist two major poles/powers. Choices would be more limited in their external relations
• Unipolar systems are by nature more lenient to provide international peace, security and stability. There would exist only one major pole/ power within the system and the ability of all other states to counterbalance the unipolar country would be extremely low

The third-image theories emphasize the impact of international systemic factors on foreign policy.

The nature of political regimes and political ideologies seem to attract the most academic attention in foreign policy analysis.

Waltz refers to the three levels of analysis as “images”. In that he explained sources of international behavior, (manifested as foreign policy) in human nature (first image), organizations and structures of the state and struggles among domestic actors (second image), in the structure of the international system, relationships among states and groups of states, alliances etc. (third image).

The traditional theories of IR (idealism and realism) base their explanation of foreign policy on systemic factors, that is they believe foreign policy decisions are influenced by the nature of the international system. While doing this, they attribute features of human nature to the states. This methodology is defined as rational-choice theory. Seeing the world as being socially constructed is a characteristic of constructivism, which is a contemporary approach.

According to analyses that attempt to explain foreign policy on international level, international system is the strongest if not the only determinant of foreign policy decisions. The system level explores dynamics such as the nature and the rules of the international system, distribution of power among states and other actors like the international or transnational organisations, the number of poles in the system,
etc.

Components of foreign policy decision making are;
• identifying the problem,
• searching for alternatives,
• choosing an alternative, and
• executing the alternative.

Turkey has not only tried to shape the emerging regional environment in the Middle East as the so-called Arab Spring has unfolded but also spent great efforts to improve its relations with the emerging powers of the non-western world, such as China, Russia, India and Brazil, while paying an utmost importance to preserve the gains of its relations with western powers.

Decision-making approach studies focus on these decision makers, their motivations, psychologies, environment along with decision making apparatuses and processes.

This notion is defined as the perceptions of foreign policy makers’ on their nations’ position in the international system, its national interests and the key principles that allow it to defend them. They include perceptions of the general kinds of decisions, rules, commitments, and long term functions associated with these factors. Role conception varies with the perception of status, motivational orientation, and might be related with the particular circumstances surrounding a foreign policy issue. They remain fairly consistent and stable over extended time periods, and therefore, feed into the continuity of particular behaviors on foreign. Thus, they are potentially useful in understanding and explaining patterns of foreign policy actions of a particular state. They are also valuable in understanding idiosyncrasies that might, from the outside, seem like a       diversion from what seems to be an “obvious”, “rational” decision, response or behavior to a particular foreign policy situation.

As can be understood from the information given, all of the statements regarding the term “role conception” are correct, so the correct answer is E.