According to Fay, due to the French and Industrial Revolutions at the end of the 18th century, the social and behavioral structure of Europe greatly changed throughout the 19th century.

The Reformation first started in the German lands in 1517 when Martin Luther, a student of the Renaissance, published his ‘95 Theses,’ a series of critiques of Catholic doctrine which soon spread to the rest of much of Europe. 

'The Reformation was a religious, political, and cultural revolution that shattered the Catholic world in the 16th century' is the full sentence. Therefore, the correct choice is A.

According to Paul Hirst, the modern state has three additional characteristics:

• First, a modern state has a definite territory with boundaries.
• Second, a modern state has exclusive control over that territory (sovereignty).
• Third, a modern state is the superior political actor (hierarchy)

First, it was agrarian economy that led to industrial one. Second, Industrial Revolution was the start of the capitalist system, not the communist one. And the concept of depending on only human labor and population was about pre-industrial period. The other sentences are correct. "D" is the correct option.

Prior to the 16th century, emperors, kings, and princes predominated far more than sovereign nation states, while the Catholic Church was also central to determining the European feudal order. Indeed, ideas such as state sovereignty,
independence, or international law were not established concepts before the 17th century.

Disarmament was one of the key mottos of the 1920s and an important condition for the League of Nation’s claim for achieving world peace.

Vladimir Lenin’s socialist world vision emerged with the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917.

Debates about the outbreak of the First World War have continued intensely since the end of the war. In today’s literature, a general distinction is made between the causes of the war and the origins of the war. Studies on its underlying causes have focused mostly on the relations between the great powers of Europe and their struggle for superiority with each other.

It took seven coalitions to beat back the French Empire born of the Revolution. By the end of 1814, four major powers (Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia) had joined an alliance to fight until
Napoleon was defeated. The Treaty of Chaumont, signed in March 1814, was the major achievement of the anti-Napoleonic coalitions and paved the way for the conference in which post-revolutionary Europe would be forged.

It could be argued that the Revolutionary Wars effectively ended the era in which the European political system was based on monarchical values. As the French Republic introduced new values like social equality, citizenship, and above all nationalism, any victory that the republic achieved meant a deeper penetration of such values within Europe. In other words, the period of the Revolutionary Wars was a clash of ideologies between revolution and monarchy.

Spanish Civil war started in 1936 and lasted 3 years, ended in 1939.

Hedley Bull explains international law as the body of binding rules between states and other actors in world politics (Bull, 2012: 122). However, without any sanctions or coercive power, international law is often suspected of not being effective. As Thomas Hobbes argued, “[w]here there is no common power, there is no law”

The Treaty of Paris signed in March 1856 demilitarized the Black Sea and secured the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, all strategies put forward by Britain at the expense of Russia. It was clear that the treaty effectively subdued Russia’s position as a great power and diminished her role. Russia also felt betrayed by Austria, who but a few years earlier had relied on Russian help putting down the Hungarian Revolt. It was evident that the cooperation between Austria and Russia was over.

When the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman rule, the major powers were unaware of what collective action to take. It was evident that the Ottoman Empire was not included in the domain of the European Concert. However, this uprising could be a trigger for the other possible risks, like raising awareness. The others were direct threats as those countries all belonged to the Concert of Europe. "E" is the correct option.

During  The Renaissance many political thinkers counseled local political leaders, of which Niccolò Machiavelli was one of the most prominent.  Machiavelli, who has often been dubbed “the first truly modern political thinker,” was a bureaucrat and diplomat who served in the government of Florence. 

In June 1789, the third estate, most of which belonged to the bourgeoisie, staged a declared itself as the National Assembly calling for a constitution that limited the sovereignty of the king. As the masses in Paris rose up in the summer of 1789, the king dully accepted the new constitution. The National Assembly drew up the second constitution now declaring France a Republic.

Massive production rates and economic expansion greatly enhanced the scale of most states’ military buildups. Thus industrialization contributed to militarism and armaments as a cause for World War I.

Germany was not one of the Allied Powers in the First World War