The treaty establishing the Quadruple Alliance was signed on 20 November 1815. However, this does not mean that Britain embraced the values of the absolute monarchies, nor did Britain and other members of the Quadruple Alliance stop seeing France and the effects of the French Revolution as a threat to their regimes. Yet, despite all these, once again, peace came to Europe.

The increase and diversification of IOs in international politics is closely related to globalization which emerged as a result of the rapid changes of the 20th century. Diez and his colleagues describe globalization as a “catch-all” concept that refers to “the widespread perception of the world as merging into a shared global economic and social space, a process caused by information technologies and an increased degree of interdependency”.

There are three types of international regimes: spontaneous, imposed, and negotiated. Spontaneous regimes are unplanned; they emerge out of common behaviors of actors. Imposed regimes are purposely constructed by a dominant actor. Negotiated regimes are those regimes “characterized by conscious efforts to agree on their major provisions, explicit consent on the part of individual participants, and formal expression of the results.

For example, The Paris Conference (1856), the Berlin Conference (1878), and The Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907) can be considered as mechanisms of early forms of IOs. However, the League of Nations is the first permanent IO that was established for the maintenance of international peace and security.

This situation is called a non-zero sum game or a positive game. The correct option is A.

According to Schechter, these early public international unions had numerous functions. They served as the: • Collection point and clearinghouses for information, • Centers for collective decisions on the solution of common problems, • Tools for the coordination of national policy and practices, • Agencies for promoting uniform standards in their fields.

TNOs are divided into three types: genuine INGOs, hybrid NGOs, and trans-governmental organizations (TGOs). INGOs are organizations that only consist of non-governmental actors. The International Olympic Committee is a telling example of INGOs. If the members of an organization belong to a specific geographical region, this kind of organization is classified as a regional organization. The most notable examples of regional organizations are the European Union (EU), the African Union (AU, The Euroasian Economic Union, and the Arab League.

More than any other scholar, Ernst B. Haas deserves to be known as the founding father of neofunctionalism. Haas has developed the idea of regional integration through functional cooperation on ‘nonpolitical’ issues, which would in fact lead to further integration in the geographical area concerned. However, even Haas himself had second thoughts right from the beginning of his studies about both the soundness of this “spill over” theory and neofunctionalism as a promising way to world peace.

One ardent supporter of functionalism has been David Mitrany.

The other names are the ones supporting legalist approach.

There are several differences between policy networks and epistemic communities. The policy networks do not reflect the same degree of coherence as epistemic communities do. Policy networks are clusters and have larger groups, while epistemic communities are a subset of policy networks. Policy networks’ membership fluctuates. Although they have different values, they are tied together by their interdependency. Power and resources are distributed unequally in policy networks. However, epistemic communities are more stable, and they consist of a smaller number of members who share same values.

A civil initiative in Switzerland successfully created the first international regulatory organization for war: the International Committee for Relief to Wounded in 1863 that was later renamed as the International Committee of the Red Cross. Subsequently, twelve countries signed the First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field in August 1864.

The Permanent Court of International Justice (it was independent from the League but acted as an advisory board), the Permanent Mandates Commission, the Minorities Commission, and several other commissions were under the first category.

Realist scholars share some assumptions about the role of the state in the present state system. For one thing, there is no a higher authority above and beyond sovereign nation-states in the international system. As such, in the absence of a government at the international level, the system has an anarchic nature. The realistic notion of power embodies proficiencies not only in political and economic terms but also in military terms. In that respect, realists argue that states consolidate their power to secure and guarantee their selfpreservation, which is their primary concern. This realist line of reasoning also points to the manners in which states utilize their power in the multistate international system. It is in states’ ultimate benefit that their status quo is maintained against any revisionist states. For this reason, the state may intentionally use power to suppress the motives of other states and, thus, create a constant power struggle and hostility in international affairs.

The Paris Conference (1856), the Berlin Conference (1878), and The Hague Conferences (1899 and 1907) can be considered as mechanisms of early forms of IOs. Pioneer IOs also included international public unions such as the International Telegraph Union of 1865, which is today known as the International Telecommunication Union. As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The League of Nations is the first permanent IO that was established for the maintenance of international peace and security.

The concept of legalism refers to a world-order approach that considers international law as the exclusive means to sustaining and promoting world order. Although the endproduct of its proponents has been a world government or world federalism, they however, acknowledging the difficulty involved in this process, have generally entertained the idea that world government may be created by first establishing a world confederal structure. Federalism and Confederalism, so the argument goes, would and should be achieved by uniting the world around a common global law. The correct option is A.

The concept of legalism refers to a world-order approach that considers international law as the exclusive means to sustaining and promoting world order. Therefore, the correct option is C.

For example, Protocol 23 signed at the Paris Congress provided a reference to a third-partymediation for the resolution of international disputes, although it did not impose mandatory measures on states. 

There are five models of internet governance:

• The spontaneous cyberspace model: The Internet is beyond the reach of government control, and it is a self-governing realm of individual liberty.

• The transnational institutions and organization model: It inherently transcends national borders. As a result, most suitable institutions are transnational and quasiprivate cooperatives or international organizations with treaty arrangements.

• The internet architecture and code model: Many regulatory decisions are made by communication protocols and other software about how the Internet operates.

• The national government and law model: Regulatory decisions about the Internet are made through legal regulations by national governments.

• The market regulation and economics model: Market forces are driving forces in shaping the nature of the Internet (Solum, 2009: 56-57).

Cord Meyer, another prominent world governmentalist, has argued that the nationstate was responsible for two world wars within a generation. “As long as the inhabitants of the earth prefer to live as members of sovereign states,” he wrote, “the catastrophe of war will remain the ultimate means of settling their disputes and of protecting their rights and very existence”. Meyer urged that peace-through-power reasoning is wrong and that the internationalist approach, which fails to transform this reasoning, should be discarded. Meyer’s “plan for survival” was turning the UN system into a world government. In this new system he suggested that “the power to legislate should be given to the General Assembly. Meyer argued that only in such a system will individuals “find for the first time the freedom from fear.” The correct option is D.

In the literature, IOs are categorized according to three criteria: membership, aims and activities, and structure.

As such, in contrast to the realist perspective, liberalism takes a different stance on the role of IOs in world affairs. Since liberalism underlines the importance of cooperation between states, naturally this approach attributes a greater prominence to international organizations and considers them as essential actors of International Relations. In that respect, IOs are regarded as the “early institutions of world government.” IOs serve as a platform for states to cooperate and they provide with states and other non-state actors a formal set of rules that are necessary for managing international affairs. In this regard, IOs serve to the common good of all participating states rather than to the interests of a single most powerful state.