ECOSOC holds issue-based meetings under three main categories:
• High-Level Political Forum (HLPF)
• Annual Ministerial Review (AMR),
• Development Cooperation Forum (DCF).

UNESCO is another successful case for the UN involvement in the governance of global social issues. UNESCO is one of the largest UN agencies that was created to increase “dialogue among civilizations, cultures, and peoples,” based on mutual respect, and to contribute toward peace and the eradication of poverty. Article I of its Constitution commits UNESCO to furthering through education, science and culture “universal respect for justice, for the rule of law, and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms.” (www.unesco.org) Following its establishment in 1945, the organization has taken major roles in standard and norm setting, especially through its involvement in human rights education, research and awareness-raising within its fields of competence. In 2003 intensified efforts to mainstream human rights across the UN system led UNESCO to reaffirm and contextualize its human rights mandate. A significant innovation was the delineation of specific human rights responsibilities as opposed to a previously loosely defined mandate.

“UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It seeks to build peace through international cooperation in Education, the Sciences and Culture. UNESCO’s programmes contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals defined in Agenda 2030, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015,” (//en.unesco.org/)

The correct answer is C. 

The UN System was built on developments from the 16th century onward. These are European traditions and experience in international law and organizations; the Concert of Europe; codified procedures for the prevention of war and the pacific settlement of conflicts in the Hague conferences; international public unions such as the Rhine Commission (1815) and the Danube Commission (1848), as well as that of the International Telegraphic Union (1865) and the Universal Postal Union (1874); and finally, the League of Nations. The first concrete step towards the establishment of the UN was taken when US President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill signed a joint declaration called the Atlantic Charter in August 1941. The Declaration by the United Nations was signed in January 1942 by twenty-six nations fighting against the Axis powers. Representatives from China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States gathered at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington D.C. to draft the charter and main principles of the new international organization. They produced Dumbarton Oaks Proposals on the basic structure of the organization in 1944. The United Nations Conference on the International Organization convened in San Francisco, and the UN Charter was unanimously accepted on June 26, 1945. It officially came into existence on October 24, 1945.

Joseph Nye has classified power as “soft power,” “hard power,” and “smart power.” Hard power is the use of coercion and payment; soft power is the ability to obtain preferred outcomes through attraction; smart power is the combination of the tools of both hard power and soft power.

Globalized competition is a value of the Global Governance. The correct option is E.

Environmental issues, and particularly climate change, were not at the top of the UN agenda during the 1950s and 1960s. In fact, it was not until late 1960s that environmental issues received serious attention by any major UN organ. In 1969, deliberations about acquiring a balance on all elements of social and economic development, particularly in developing countries, were held in ECOSOC and in the General Assembly. Subsequently, the Commission for Social Development submitted a draft Declaration on Social Progress and Development, which was adopted by the General Assembly in 1969. This was the first time an international instrument provided clear guidelines for not only social policies but also the integration of economic and social action toward improving the social environment and the well-being of the individual.

The correct answer is D. 

The idea of global governance is based on the formation of an international society, which consists of nation states that aim at forming global institutions and following global practices. The process of globalization of an international society includes reflective universalism that embodies state-society relations around the world. These interactions involve not only the formation of universal values and norms, but also common practices aiming at creating a peaceful world order. This is universalism.

“Universalism is a theme prominently associated with the modern world-system. It is in many ways one of its boasts. Universalism means in general the priority to general rules applying equally to all persons, and therefore the rejection of particularistic preferences in most spheres. The only rules that are considered permissible within the framework of universalism are those which can be shown to apply directly to the narrowly defined proper functioning of the world-system” .

On the other hand, regionalism is a theory or practice of the integration process, which coordinates social, economic, and political activities within a specific geographical location embodying a number of states.  Regionalism is considered as a supplement of, rather than an alternative to, the universal and global integration process. Regional institutional establishments, in fact, emerged as a result of the inadequacy of the universal approach for taking effective actions to address the world’s problems 

Anarchy means the lack of an overarching authority above states in the international system.

According to Hedley Bull, great powers “manage their relations with one another in the interest of international order” through:
“(i) preserving the general balance of power, (ii) seeking to avoid or control crises in their relations with one another, and (iii)
seeking to limit or contain wars among one another. They exploit their preponderance in relation to the rest of international
society by (iv) unilaterally exploiting their local preponderance, (v) agreeing to respect one another’s spheres of influence, and (vi) joint action, as is implied by the idea of a great power concert or condominium”. 

The most important second generation think tank is the RAND Corporation, which was established in May 1948. Largely financed by the US Air Force, the RAND Corporation was intended to “think through the unthinkable” and to defend and promote American security interests. During this period the Hudson Institute in 1961 and the Urban Institute in 1968 were established as the second generation think tanks. 

In the beginning of the 1900s, significant think tanks were established for informing governments not only about domestic politics but also about foreign policy. These include the Russel Sage Foundation established in 1907, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace established in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie, the Hoover Institution in 1919 by former US President Herbert Hoover, the Council on Foreign Relations in 1921, the Brookings Institution established in 1927, and the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research founded in 1943.

Therefore, the correct option is C.

Mingst and Karns identify five key events that had an important impact on the creation of the UN (2012:19-21). First, European traditions and experience in international law and organization since the 16th century had a significant impact on the creation of an international organization in the 20th century. Second, the UN also evolved out of the Concert of Europe that was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. On the one hand, the Concert of Europe was dominated by the great powers, which acted as the guardians of the modern state system (Alger, 1995: 4). On the other hand, meeting more than 30 times between 1815 and 1878 to settle common issues and coordinate their actions, these same powers had also set practices and principles such as multilateral consultation, collective security, and special status for powerful countries that are still influential in the UN system today (Mingst and Karns, 2012:19). Third, the origins of the UN system can be also traced to The Hague Conferences, a pair of international meetings that were held in 1899 and 1907. Finally, the League of Nations, established  after the end of World War I, had a huge impact on the creation of the UN.

The Concert of Europe and its congress diplomacy had both positive and negative outcomes by the end of the 19th century:

• The congress system proved to be the best mechanism for mediation and arbitration among European powers. Besides, meeting periodically at the congresses contributed to the construction of a collective identity among Europeans, because the common diplomatic language and codes created shared understandings among states. However, the system was confined to Europe. NonEuropeans were neither familiar with the congress diplomacy nor shared a common understanding of diplomacy and customs.

• The Concert contributed to the cooperation among European states for maintaining peace as well as the governance of the system. However, it did not produce permanent international bodies for resolving the disputes. Nor did it contribute to the institutionalization of international regulations and norms by way of codifying them into international law. The Concert never encouraged its members to create further organizations. As such, it was only an instrument of collective diplomacy, not an organizational body to regulate the international system. Its structure was determined by the great powers which produced rival blocks by the end of the century.

• In European politics the congress system served as a tool of peacebuilding after the armed conflicts. However, it failed to prevent the confrontations of Europeans with non-European powers as the cases of US-Spanish War of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 illustrated.

• Although the congress system was the primary tool of great power diplomacy, the outcome of the congresses never surpassed the will and interests of their organizers. In other words, the Concert was designed to favor the great powers and contribute to their common interests. Probably, this is the most negative legacy of the Concert for future international organizations, because it undermined the principle of sovereign equality.

At the end of World War II, a major effort to “develop ways of maintaining peace and stability” led to the formation of the United Nations (Bennett, 1995:43).

The concept of governance refers to sustaining coordination and coherence among a wide range of actors with different aims and objectives. These actors include political actors, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), pressure groups, interest groups, individuals, and media (Pierre, 2000: 3-4).

Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 and its foundation predates that of others.