Information warfare is a type of battle for the control of the digital space involving the whole society. The basic strategies of Information Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ destroy information, steal data and manipulate data to change its context or its perception Therefore, the correct option is A.

Peacekeeping comprises the basic principles which are impartiality; consent of the parties; non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate.

The legal key term in the wording of Article 2/7 is the domestic jurisdiction of states. This is so because which actions and issues fall under the legal and political domain of state and when the state can exclusively take decisions on these actions and issues have always been controversial. Therefore, many decisions that states take on issues related to use of force, self-defense, aggression, and political independence face opposition at international platforms. Therefore, the correct option is A.

During the 1990s, intervention took places in “no-fly zones” in Iraq, Somalia, Bosnia, Sierra Leone, East Timor, and Kosovo. In Syria, there was no intervention. The correct answer is A.

Another issue that has become prominent especially with the attacks on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon building in the US on September 11, 2001 and that has provided the target states with the legitimacy for resorting to force beyond the UN Charter paradigm is the fight against international terrorism. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Buzan distinguished five models of security due to newly emerging diversity of perceived threats:

1. Military security concerns itself with the two-level interplay of the armed offensive and defensive capabilities of states and state’s perceptions of each other’s intentions,

2. Political security focuses on the organizational stability of states, systems of government, and ideologies that give them legitimacy,

3. Economic security emphasizes on prioritazing access to resources, finance, and markets necessary to sustain acceptable levels of welfare and state power,

4. Societal security concerns itself with the ability of societies to reproduce their traditional patterns of language, culture, association, religious and national identities and customs within acceptable conditions for evolution,

5. Environmental security deals with the maintenance of local and planetary biosphere as well as space in order to ensure continued existence of all human beings.

Therefore, the correct option is E.

Realism defines international relations in terms of power. The exercise of power by states toward each other is called power politics (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). There are two main approaches of realism: classical realism that considers power politics in terms of egoism and neorealism, or structural realism, that explains power politics in terms of anarchy (Heywood, 2011).

In ancient Greece, Thucydides wrote on the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.), focusing on relative power among the Greek city-states. Power is regarded as a zero-sum game. According to the zero-sum game, “the actors in the international system must deprive one another of their power in order to add it to their own” (Molloy, 2006). This is not one of the six principles.

Philosophical roots of collective security are realism, neo-realism and neoliberal
institutionalism.

The Welsh School is a name that it is attributed to the security studies school at the Aberystwyth University. The Welsh School has been one of the leading critical security schools and it draws all the attention with the contributions of the scholars such as Ken Booth, Richard Wyn Jones, Andrew Linklater, and Pınar Bilgin. The school criticizes the approach of Traditional Security Studies that locates its analysis on a state as a central concern of the study and declares that traditional security approaches are not sufficient for the security needs of today.

Bary Buzan is a scholar from the Copenhagen School.

Based on these two articles, the General Assembly lists several specific acts in Article III of the Resolution and decides that any of these acts “shall, subject to and in accordance with the provisions of article 2, qualify as an act of aggression.” These acts include (UN General Assembly, 1974):

• “The invasion or attack by the armed forces of a State of the territory of another State, or any military occupation, however temporary, resulting from such invasion or attack, or any annexation by the use of force of the territory of another State or part thereof,

• Bombardment by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any weapons by a State against the territory of another State;

• The blockade of the ports or coasts of a State by the armed forces of another State;

• An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State;

• The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement;

• The action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State;

• The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to the acts listed above, or its substantial involvement therein.”

• “The invasion or attack by the armed forces of a State of the territory of another State, or any military occupation, however temporary, resulting from such invasion or attack, or any annexation by the use of force of the territory of another State or part thereof,

• Bombardment by the armed forces of a State against the territory of another State or the use of any weapons by a State against the territory of another State;

• The blockade of the ports or coasts of a State by the armed forces of another State;

• An attack by the armed forces of a State on the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air fleets of another State;

• The use of armed forces of one State which are within the territory of another State with the agreement of the receiving State, in contravention of the conditions provided for in the agreement or any extension of their presence in such territory beyond the termination of the agreement;

• The action of a State in allowing its territory, which it has placed at the disposal of another State, to be used by that other State for perpetrating an act of aggression against a third State;

• The sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to the acts listed above, or its substantial involvement therein.”

Therefore, the correct option is B.

Chapter VI of the UN Charter empowers the Security Council on the issue of “peaceful resolution of disputes” among states and defines various political and judicial solutions. Whereas these measures would be inadequate, Chapter VII of the UN Charter gives the authorization to the Security Council to take precautions of the implementation of necessary sanctions and coercive measures, including the use of force. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Self-help refers to a state’s reliance on its own capacities and resources, rather than external support, to ensure security and survival.

Security dilemma arises from the fact that  a build-up of military capacity for defensive
reasons by one state is always liable to be interpreted as aggressive by other states.

The concept of relative gains refers to the position of states in relation to one another, reflected in the distribution of benefits and capabilities between and amongst them.

Offensive realism is a form of structural realism that portrays states as ‘power maximizers’, as there is no limit to their desire to control the international
environment.

Defensive realism is a form of structural realism that views states as ‘security maximizers’, placing the desire to avoid attack above a bid for World power

The traditionalist security approaches have the following features: First, they have mostly emphasized the military aspects of security as well as the concepts such as war, defense, strategy, and geopolitics. They have focused on the problem of national security and the nation-state. Second, the traditionalist security approaches mostly choose a narrow or mono-sectoral agenda and attach priority to one sector (military), one actor (the state), and one action (the use of force). Finally, the traditionalist security approaches have a statist perspective, which is based on a scientific and objectivist understanding of knowledge. Therefore, the correct option is C.

ISS is defined as “the study of the threat, use, and control of military force.” It investigates how conditions make the use of force more likely and how the use of force affects individuals, states, and societies. It addresses the specific policies that states embrace in order to prepare for, prevent, or engage in war (Walt, 1991: 212). The nation-state is the referent object of security.

Irregular warfare is a violent struggle among states and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations. Asymmetrical warfare is defined as threats outside the range of conventional warfare and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind such as suicide bombings. Psychological warfare is planned psychological activities designed to influence behavior, perceptions, and attitudes affecting the achievement of political and military objectives. Information warfare is a type of battle for the control of the digital space involving the whole society. The basic strategies of Information Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ destroy information, steal data and manipulate data to change its context or its perception. Cyber warfare is an extension of policy by actions taken in cyberspace state or non-state actors that either is conducted in response to a perceived threat against a nation’s security or constitute a serious threat to a nation’s security. 

Self-help refers to a state’s reliance on its own capacities and resources, rather than external support, to ensure security and survival.