The nuclear weapons states are the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)-designated nuclear weapon states (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States) and other states with nuclear weapons (India, North Korea, and Pakistan). Therefore, the correct option is E.

the critical legal question here is, whether a state when it has reasonable doubt and adequate information that another state’s attack against itself is imminent can first act and use its right of self-defense. In other words, if the threat of an attack in imminent, does this justify the state to use force preemptively? This issue, which in the literature of International Relations is known as “preemptive strike” or “preventive strike,” is still controversial (Bellier, 2006); however, the actual law (with the exception of recent grave situations such as terrorism) is in conformity with the approach that the UN Charter should be interpreted rather narrowly. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Morgenthau outlines the “six principles of political realism” as follows:

• Politics is governed by objective laws which have their root in human nature.

• The key to understanding international politics is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.

• The forms and nature of state power will vary in time, place and context but the concept of interest remains consistent.

• Universal moral principles do not guide state behavior, although this does not rule out an awareness of the moral significance of political action.

• Moral aspirations are specific to a particular nation; there is no universally agreed set of moral principles.

• The political sphere is autonomous

Asymmetrical warfare is defined as threats outside the range of conventional warfare
and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind such as suicide bombings.

The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) came into force in 1970. The correct answer is A.

Hybrid warfare combines both conventional (state-tostate) and irregular warfare (terrorism, insurgency, and counterterrorism). Therefore, the correct option is C.

Peacemaking includes measures to address ongoing conflicts and usually comprises diplomatic action and mediation to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement.

It is possible to classify ISS under two main approaches: Traditionalist and Critical. Military-oriented and state-centered conception of Security Studies (SS) and Peace Research are classified under the traditionalist approach whereas the Feminist Security Studies, the Copenhagen School, Post-structuralism, and Constructivist Security Studies under the Critical approach (Buzan and Hansen, 2009: 3).

The critical security approaches, on the other hand, aim to widen the concept of security through the issue linkage and bringing into discussion new types of threats, actors, and referent objects. The critical security approaches hold that threats and referent objects are socially-constructed. The critical ISS has developed over the past two decades with new debates on broadening and deepening the scope of security and its referent objects. It adopts diverse sets of theories and some form of post-positivist approach of security that shifts the ontological foundations of understanding of security towards on an emphasis on processes of construction, ideas, and identities. Critical approaches claim the logic of appropriateness in relation to norms and expectations, the logic of exceptionalism in securitization theory, the logic of practicality, the dynamics of discourse, or the potential paths towards security as emancipation. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Irregular warfare is a violent struggle among states and non-state actors
for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations.

Asymmetrical warfare is defined as threats outside the range of conventional warfare and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind such as suicide bombings.

Psychological warfare is planned psychological activities designed to influence behavior, perceptions, and attitudes affecting the achievement of political and military objectives.

Information warfare is a type of battle for the control of the digital space involving the whole society. The basic strategies of Information Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ destroy information, steal data and manipulate data to change its context or its perception.

Cyber warfare is an extension of policy by actions taken in cyberspace state or non-state actors that either is conducted in response to a perceived threat against a nation’s security or constitute a serious threat to a nation’s security. It occurs when nationstate engages in cyber operations and use the Internet as a new battlefield in conflict.

Hybrid warfare combines both conventional (state-tostate) and irregular warfare (terrorism, insurgency, and counterterrorism). Nano-warfare is a newly emerging field in strategy to use nanotechnologies and molecular manufacturing for future horrifically effective weapons.

Upon the Suez Crisis, the UN Emergency Force (UNEF-I) was launched by the UN General Assembly in 1956. The correct answer is A.

Peacebuilding was coined by Boutros Ghali in his “An Agenda for Peace” report released in 1992.

Key Concepts in Critical Security Studies

Referent Object: It is an object that is taken as the focus for analysis in security studies. As to this concept, there are two main approaches to the security: state-centric security (the state is the referent object) and human-centric approach (human is the referent object).

Traditional Security Studies: It refers to Realist, Liberal, Peace Studies and Strategic Studies perspectives in the study of security. All of them prioritize the state as the referent object of security and focus on military threats to the security of the state.

Broadening: The broadening security agenda refers to Barry Buzan’s sectoral analysis that the security agenda includes not only military sector issues but also political, economic, societal and environmental issues.

Deepening: The state is not only the referent object of security but it also includes human individuals, institutions and groups.

Positivism: It claims that social sciences can be built upon the same model as natural sciences. Scientific principles such as objectivity, verification/falsification, and generalization can adapt to the study of society.

Post-Positivism: It rejects the idea that it is possible to analyze the natural world and the social world in the same way. There is no objective view

The following two missions were the peace enforcement missions where the UN troops had to physically fight: 1) The UN Operation in Congo (UNOC): started on July 14, 1960 with the Security Council Resolution 143 and continued until June 1964; 2) The UN Operation in Somali (UNOSOM II): started on March 26, 1993 with the Security Council Resolution 814 and continued until March 1995 under the leadership of the USA. The correct answer is B.

Realism defines international relations in terms of power.

Critical Security Studies is an academic discipline within security studies which rejects mainstream approaches such as realism and neorealism.

In May 1994, a small conference was held at York University in Toronto entitled Strategies and Conflict: Critical Approaches to Security Studies. It brought together from around the world a variety of scholars with interests in security and with concern about new security studies in the early post-Cold War era. This conference title was used as the title of the book, edited by Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams. In their 1997 book, Critical Security Studies: Concept and Cases, Krause and Williams suggested a broad definition of critical security studies which covered all “new approaches” from Constructivism through Feminism and “Copenhagen School” to Poststructuralism. 

Krause and Williams helped shape critical security studies as a pluralistic field. In addition, they pose such questions to open a broad and complex agenda for security studies. Questioning the referent object of security, ‘who or what is to be secured’, Krause and Williams challenged the traditional state-centric understanding of security and instead put forward the individual as the object of security.

The term Critical Security Studies is also used to refer to the coherent theoretical school created mostly by the endeavor of Professors Ken Booth and Richard Wyn Jones, Andrew Linklater and their colleagues from the Aberystwyth University. Booth and Wyn Jones developed a brand of ‘Critical Security Studies’ that challenged the definition of security in terms of military threats to the state, and instead linked the study of security to human emancipation.

Critical Security Studies contributes to security studies by broadening and deepening the concept of security. T

September 11 and the wider threat of terrorism has highlighted the emergence of new security challenges that are particularly problematic because they arise from non-state actors and exploit the greater interconnectedness of the modern world. International security may, therefore, have given way to ‘global’ security.

Irregular warfare is a violent struggle among states and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations. Therefore, the correct option is B.