There are on some philosophical and political underpinnings or reasons such as humanitarian intervention, protecting state citizens, and terrorism that would help legitimize the instances of use of force in international relations. These reasons for resorting to force may be classified as “beyond the UN Charter paradigm” because the UN Charter does not cover or directly address them. Therefore, the correct option is D.

The Paris School treats security as a social construction as opposed to objective reality. It is argued that security is the result of what it refers to an (in) securitization process. The school questions the understanding of security as survival and as a positive value.

It is possible to explain, analyze and understand the international security in six levels:
• Individual level: Security for the individual.
• Societal level: Security for the social group, i.e. ethnic, national, religious, linguistic, or community groups.
• National level: Security for the state or nation.
• Regional level: Security for the region, that is, a coherent security region.
• International level: Security for the international society, the society of nations, and most states in the world.
• Global level: Security for the planet Earth and space (Heurlin and Kristensen, 2010: 69).

the Security Council, through its Resolution 1373, adopted some measures to combat the financing of terrorism and established the Counter-Terrorism Committee in an attempt to coordinate the member states’ activities against terrorism. Therefore, the correct option is E.

The UN Secretary-General who invented the concept of peacekeeping is Dag Hammarskjöld. The correct answer is E.

Features of 1 and 4 belong to traditionalist approach. Other features belong to critical approach.

The Copenhagen School of security studies emerged at the Conflict and Peace Research Institute (COPRI) of Copenhagen. Its most prominent scholars are Barry Buzan, Ole Waever and Jaap de Wilde. They all claim that traditional methods are inadequate to describe the current security needs. Their main argument is the necessity of ‘broadening and widening’ the security agenda. In the school’s primary book, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (1998) Buzan, Waever and Wilde have built two important conceptual contributions to the study of security. Barry Buzan’s notion of sectoral analysis of security and Ole Waever’s concepts of securitization and societal security are the significant contributions of the Copenhagen School.

The Amphictyonic League was established by the Greek-city states in order to maintain internal security by the commitment of the collective group of small city-states.

According to Ajaj, humanitarian intervention refers to the short-term use of force to exclusively re-establish respect for human rights. The correct answer is B. 

Cultural violence is the use of nationalism, racism, sexism, Islamophobia, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination in the media, the arts, education, literature, films, street names, monuments, celebrating special national days and heroes, etc. to intellectually justify direct and structural violence.

Globalization and interdependence are the two central components that have changed the nature of power as well as our understanding of security in four major ways.

First, the dynamics of international security have changed the power distribution across the board. Nowadays not only the United States but also the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the European Union are considered “big powers.”

Second, the increase in the volume of global trade, international communication and travel as well as the emergence of the Industry 4.0 have created an integrated global economy and made it necessary to take into account some new actors, means, and perspectives for sustaining and promoting international security.

Third, globalization and interdependence may lead to a butterfly effect in that local problems may turn into major international threats and challenges that would affect regional and global security.

Finally, because there is no one institution that would act as a global government and create a just global system, globalization, in fact, functions in a way to increase international anarchy and complexity. This, in turn, heightens security concerns and calls for a creative problem-solving approach. 

Liberalism has three different forms:

• Republican Liberalism

• Interdependence Liberalism

• Liberal Institutionalism

Private security has unforeseen impacts on international security. First, they present challenges in the structures of authority, legitimacy, international law, and global governance. Secondly, they erode the power of the state and threaten state authority inside and contemporary structures of governance. Therefore, the correct option is D.

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Peace enforcement activities include carrying out international sanctions against the opposing sides; isolating the conflict zones and preventing penetration of armed groups into these areas; delivering air or missile strikes against the groups refusing the agreement; disarming and eradicating armed formations which refuse to end armed fighting. The answer is E.