One significant European-wide result of the French Revolution was the spread of the concepts of nationalism and nation-states, which were to shape developments for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The correct answer is A.

The United Nations General Assembly approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

Because international scholars became aware of the presence of another gender, women. Therefore,  the place of different genders, especially of women, in international relations was questioned. The answers led feminism as a postmodern international relations theory.

In Turkey, Tsunamis and volcanic eruptions are seldomly or never observed

Theories generalize the events and help us understand the workings of international events. But they neither do attempt nor can explain everything that happens in the system.

The UN focus on preventing individuals from some threats like hunger, disease, and repression indicates that shift

John Locke and Adam Smith were two who had significant influence on the assumptions of idealism, the foundation of classical liberalism. Hans Morgenthau and Niccolò Machiavelli are supporters of realism. On the other hand, Kenneth Waltz (author of the influential Theory of International Politics, 1979) is most often associated with neorealism. The correct anwer is A.

The book says;

The use of force under the united nations rules is lawful under two circumstances,

1. When there is a threat to the nation’s safety.

2. When one of the members of an allied nations is under threat.

In the book, the following definition is given.

Security is the quality of state of being secure, with freedom from danger, fear or anxiety.

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 constituted the starting point of the international system:  Europe adopted a specific kind of sovereignty and regular interactions among mutually-recognized sovereign states emerged. Further, these interactions developed specific patterns of relations in terms of cooperation and conflict through the normative institutionalization of mutual exchanges between states. They have evolved and developed over time as the international system geographically expanded and its numbers of political actors increased. The Peace of Westphalia incorporated the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück that officially ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  Some key features of international politics have been ascribed to the content of these treaties, since they symbolized the emergence of a new international order in which sovereign states interact with each other. As can be understood from the information given the correct answer is A.

The information about the treaties which take place in the other options is as follows:

In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg was signed to reduce sectarian tensions in Europe. It sought peaceful coexistence between Roman Catholics and Protestants (at that time limited to Lutherans) and gave every prince within the Holy Roman Empire the right to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism in their own domains. However, in practice the Peace of Augsburg was not able to resolve the dispute either religiously or politically.

Between 1648 and 1789, each succession war was concluded with a peace settlement following an international diplomatic congress that included all the warring parties, The Peace of Utrecht put an end to the Spanish Succession Wars in 1713, for instance.

Imposed top-down by the victorious powers, the restoration of Europe came under threat from modern ideas introduced by the French Revolution, including liberalism and nationalism. For this reason, it was considered essential to set up a structure that would guarantee the maintenance of the Vienna settlement. To do so, the Congress of Vienna made significant arrangements for the restructuring of the international system. The major powers sought to recreate a new European political landscape that would parallel the former system and restore the balance of power. 

The future of International Relations will undoubtedly include the forces of globalization. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is E. The statements with regard to the future prospects of International Relations in the options can be summarized by using the concept “Globalization”. Many thinkers foresee the development of ways to avoid conflict entirely — or at the very least, minimize it. Some theorists predict that wealth will be redistributed worldwide so that there will be more equity; the international system will not be comprised of “haves” and “have-nots.” Others hope for a decrease in nationalism and an upswing in “cosmopolitanism”, the sense that one is a citizen of the world rather than of a narrower group or affiliation. Some have suggested that cultural diversity will become more tolerated and more understood by greater proportions of the global population, and that this will render some of today’s International Relations theories null. To others, power and selfinterest will no longer dominate international relations as it does today, foregoing the terms of realism, and more liberal and perhaps even idealistic theories will be able to explain a different kind of world than we have today. Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” theory may no longer explain international relations and zones of conflict, or even make sense, as boundaries, difference and acceptance adapt to changing global politics. Humanitarianism may well arise as the leading topic; peoples might become as concerned with the well-being of others who share the globe as they currently are of their own strengths. Certainly, climate change, pollution, and non-fossil-fueled power will continue to be valid issues.

The explanations for the other concepts in the options are as follows:

Coalitions are sometimes thought of as alliances, especially when states come together against a common threat. Coalition means a joining together. Coalitions are always multilateral (with associates from different states). Before, during and post-World Wars I and II, alliances formed and then re-formed, depending on how international conditions were interpreted by various states and other entities. Multilateral coalitions are generally favored in modern times, allying several states together to take on a threat to or concern of all involved, either on the state or international level (consider United Nations peacekeeping missions containing troops from several or many states).

Mutually Assured Destruction: A relationship between two states in which each can destroy the other’s society even after absorbing an all-out attack (or ?rst strike) by the other state. In short, each state has an invulnerable second-strike capability (Griffiths and O’Callaghan, 2002, 201).

Human rights are also equal and nondiscriminatory. “Non-discrimination is a cross-cutting principle in international human rights law. The principle is present in all the major human rights treaties and provides the central theme of international human rights conventions such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.  

Power Projection: The capability of a country to project (or, alternatively, physically bring via sealift or airlift) its military power to any part of the world rapidly and with little advance notice. The United States is assessed to be especially good at this, as it has the largest inventory of nuclear weapons and the most high-tech weaponry overall. It continues to lead the world in terms of research on products intended for military use.

One cannot address constructivist theory without citing Alexander Wendt, who is the author of “Social Theory of International Politics”. The correct option is D.

A summit including both Western and Eastern states of Europe was launched in Helsinki, with the Helsinki Final Act being signed in 1975. This treaty recognized all national borders in Europe and outlawed the use of force to change these borders. The Act stated that “the participating states regard as inviolable all one another’s frontiers as well as the frontiers of all states in Europe and therefore they will refrain now and in the future from assaulting these frontiers. The correct answer is E.

Article 42 of the Charter is about the UN membership aligning together to oppose an aggressor. The correct answer is B.

Not all countries of the world are members of the UN. It is not a must for a state to become a member of the organization to get legally recognized as such.

Realism is the dominant and  most effective framework today to explain world politics. However, it does have both strengths and weaknesses when used in the real world because it is a theoretical account of how the world works. Realism has been criticized for being too focused on higher-level political analyses, for the centrality it places on the unit of the state, and for its reliance on human nature, ego and emotion. As also understood from the information given the correct answer is D.

Realism as a perspective cannot explain everything. As Kenneth Waltz indicated, the contribution of realism to international relations lies is telling us “a small number of big and important        things” . What is mentioned in the last option has not been considered as a critics. Telling us “a small number of big and important things” has been indicated as a contibution.

Classical liberalism is a political philosophy and ideology in which primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedom of the individual and limiting the power of the government. The correct option is A.