In our modern era, the human security approach to international security stresses the good for all people. It assumes that a basic human right is the right to freedom. The correct answer is C.

Human Security means security from threats that challenge survival (such as disease, catastrophes, terrorism, and poverty. As also understood from this definition, the correct answer is B. Environmental Security can be defined as the need to protect humans from natural disasters and extreme weather events (such as tsunamis, earthquakes, tornadoes, and floods) that threaten human life. Protecting technology, data, and information from malicious use or corruption arising from the use of computers and the Internet is termed as cybersecurity. Security means the quality or state of being secure, with freedom from danger, fear or anxiety. International Security means the endeavor of states to ensure security for their citizens.

It ended vicious feodal system of estates and castes

The chapter states that idealism promotes toleration, reason and progress, equality, long-term mutual gains instead of short-term individual gains.

Sometimes safety threats come from one-on-one interaction with peers. Such behavior, known as bullying, is a global problem for school youngsters, college students, and even adults. On a personal level, such threats can compromise one’s health and mental well-being. Often the target of bullying cannot find a haven away from the bullying. Sometimes organizations
that are concerned about creating emotionally and psychologically safe environments for individuals create an ombudsman office to mitigate conflict
that can rise to the level of threats for employees (Hollis, 2016). Personal safety is a key element to productivity and collaboration.
The awareness of their personal safety is also evident in tourism patterns of people. It is natural for individuals to avoid people, places or events that
can compromise their safety.

The use of force under the United Nations rules is lawful under two circumstances, which are put forward by Articles 42 and 51 of the UN Charter.

Human security is the state of being secure from threats that challenge survival such as disease, catastrophes, and poverty.

The great bulk of terrorists are non-governmental actors

International security measures are the actions and strategies that countries, states, and alliances take to make the world safe for all. International security is an opportunity to build peace through global cooperation and to protect all from harm and terror. Such protection can be achieved through diplomacy, treaties, negotiations, alliances, sanctions, conventions, and military action. The collectivities of the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the (former) Warsaw Pact are examples of countries coming together to foster mutual survival and safety.

Among the precautions caused by the results of terrorist attacks are to keep all people safe, no-fly lists, increased scrutiny at checkpoints, and increased demands by government agents to see passports at border crossings signal a heightened perception of the need to maintain safety everywhere.
The global focus on security strives to eliminate these harmful acts, which hurt individuals, countries and economies.

Politics, law, morality, and economics overlap in many ways; to simply separate one area, such as politics, off from the others would be not only impractical but would not represent the way the world actually is. International Relations is truly an interdisciplinary field, taking in social sciences, history, law, and economics at the very least. 

The most remarkable characteristics of the international system that emerged after the year 1648 were:

• its limited geography,

• similar political units

• a developing pattern of relationships based on the dynamics of conflict and cooperation between these units.  The correct answer is D.

the book says "companies share information abut cyberthreats and how the threat may be defeated the sharing of this knowledge would help all while driving costs to everyone".

Cybercrime includes a relatively new form of the Internet called the dark net. Criminal behavior occurs anonymously without the same risk of detection. Activities such as illegal arms sales, human trafficking, illegal drug trafficking, child pornography and other illicit behavior all may occur in this space. 

Some International Relations scholars suggest four levels of analysis: the individual level, the domestic level (the state), then the interstate level, and following that, the global level (Goldstein and Pevehouse, 2013, 16). Here we will consider the three major analytical levels.

1. The first level (the individual) attempts to highlight and understand how persons and their characteristics (alone or in groups) impact policy (part of the decision-making process). Individual level analysis is further broken down into factors that affect policy: cognitive, emotional, and psychological ones. Biological factors may also matter. Gender is another biopolitical facet. Finally, individual and group perceptions are very important. If a person is part of a group, other influences can come into play, such as “groupthink” and roles. Analyzing the characteristics of individual leaders is another approach to individual-level analysis. This is idiosyncratic analysis: how did an individual’s personal traits influence or shape his or her decisions? This can be very important because an individual’s characteristics “are crucial to the intentions, capabilities and strategies of a state” (Byman and Pollack, 2001, 111, in Rourke, 2008, 73-74). Many other politically relevant concepts enter into idiosyncratic individual analyses: personality, physical and mental health, ego and ambition, one’s political history and personal experiences, perceptions, and operational reality (this includes leaders’ worldviews). Leaders have formal and informal powers, and each has his or her own leadership capabilities -- a group of characteristics relevant to a chief executive’s authority (Rourke, 2008, 76 and 82).
2. Analysis at the state level explores how the structure and operations of a government affect decisions and policies. The type of government matters (the continuum from liberal democracy to authoritarian state), as does the kind of situations the state faces (crisis versus non-crisis), the kinds of policies under consideration, and the impact the policies could have domestically and on interstate or international relations. How the bureaucracies (career political personnel and their offices) function can be significant. One cannot ignore the influences of interest groups and legislatures, either. How interested the public is in international affairs can make a difference, too, along with how public opinion is aligned to policies. It is important to remember, especially in relation to a state’s foreign policy, that it often reflects its political culture. Henry Kissinger explained American political culture in the following words: “Washington is like a Roman arena [in which] gladiators do battle” (Kissinger, 1982, 421). Other political cultures may be quite different, Asian state cultures, for example.
3. The last level of analysis, the system-level, is focused on the external conditions and pressures that shape a country’s practices and policies (Rourke, 2008, 65). There are specific structural characteristics that are included in system-level analysis: what is the organization of authority? Is the international system anarchical or hierarchical? Further: Is it:

• Unipolar (with only one state as most powerful),
• bipolar (two great powers), or
• multipolar?   Additionally, is there a hegemon? Are there international organizations to which some states  belong? Are there wars or conflicts going on?

As also understood from the information given, all of the statements in the options with regard to the levels of analysis in International Relations are correct, so the correct answer is E.

 The nature of conflict has changed; Large scale war is now improbable.

How could states ensure their survival in this anarchical international system? One word: Taxes! Taxes served as a vital resource for European monarchies, enabling them to finance and equip their armies. Nevertheless, at this early stage in the Westphalian system, the abilities of states to raise taxes varied. States holding vast territories could collect more taxes than territorially small states. The correct answer is C.

 Cybercrime affects people on an individua level but cyber espionage can affect military systems banking currency and government. Education is not mentioned.

The 1994 United National Development report stated, “Human security can be said to have two main aspects. It means first, safety from such chronic threats as hunger, disease, and repression. And second, it means protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions in the pattern of daily life- whether in homes, in jobs, or in communities”. Thus, in general the international community has departed from the old state-centered concept of security and adopted a more human-centered approach. The Human Development Report states that security for humans now includes economic security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security and political security. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is E.

When the study of International Relations first began in modern times (1930s and forward), it was largely considered a theoretical discipline. The first two foundational volumes were, indeed, theoretically inclined: E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948). These were formative in the development of the theory of realism, as had been the prior works of Thucydides (The Peloponnesian Wars, in the mid-300s BCE), Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince, 1532). Realism focuses on how power contributes to a variety of political outcomes and to a state’s security, and by its assumptions, concludes there can be little security for any weak state (one with little power).

Both Carr and Morgenthau argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power. Were a solution to be proposed to this focus of the international system (to ignore power accumulation and the struggles for security), it would be doomed to fail. The realist theories of Carr and Morgenthau also lacked the capacity to predict human behavior, according to those who critiqued them. Noam Chomsky, one of the more radical scholars, noted in 1994 that in international relations, ‘historical conditions are too varied and complex for anything that might be called ‘a theory’ to apply uniformly’ (quoted in Devetak, Burke, and George, 2011, 120).

As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The statements with regard to the theory of realism in the option I “E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948). were formative in the development of the theory of realism.”, in the option II “Realism focuses on how power contributes to a variety of political outcomes and to a state’s security, and by its assumptions, concludes there can be little security for any weak state (one with little power).”, in the option III “The prior works of Thucydides (The Peloponnesian Wars, in the mid-300s BCE), Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince, 1532) were also formative in the development of the theory of realism.” and in the option V “The realist theories of Carr and Morgenthau also lacked the capacity to predict human behavior, according to those who critiqued them.” are correct. The statement in the option IV “Both Machiavelli and Hobbes argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power.” is not correct because of the fact that both Carr and Morgenthau, not Machiavelli and Hobbes argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power.