“Surplus value” refers to the difference between the value produced by workers and the payment they are given. Workers are often paid less than they deserve and the remaining “surplus value” becomes the “profit” for the capitalist. 

Agrarian societies are rooted in agriculture, but also hunt animals and gather edible plants in addition to agricultural production. The first form of agrarian societies emerged when people cultivated small gardens with simple tools, and important economic inequalities exist among their people.

Social institution refers to arrangements involving large numbers of people whose behaviours are guided by norms and roles. A social institution is a socially organized social behaviour pattern that reflects the established appearance of the society, which are continuously repeated, maintained and approved by the social norms. In other words, social institutions are a totality of perpetual rules which are important for the maintenance of the structure and main values of the society.

Reasons of Poverty

• Among the personal reasons are personal traits, attitude and behaviours like an individual’s ability, responsibility, sense of discipline, and degree of frustration. In this approach, the reasons of poverty is sought in the individuals and it is presumed that he/she does not make an effort and does not attempt to get rid of poverty.
• Structural approach explains poverty within the frame of society’s economicpolitical structure. According to this approach, among the factors that affect poverty are: lack of economical growth, conflict on income distribution, features of labour markets, informal employment, low wages, insufficient employment opportunities, unorganized labour, unemployment, economic crises, shrinkage of public expenditures, short-course shocks, population pressure, migration, features of settlements, family structure, education, race, ethnic origin, and discriminations based on gender (Şenses, 2001, p.145-215).

Large numbers of people believed that Alexander the Great, Napoleon, Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, Fidel Castro had such exceptional characteristics, and as a result, became their devoted followers. These charismatic leaders had charismatic authority which based on the devotion of followers or subordinates to what they define as the exceptional characteristics of a leader. These characteristics are mostly seen as “supernatural, super-human, or at least exceptional compared to lesser mortals”. The correct answer is C.

Saint-Simon discusses society within an evolutionist and positivist conceptual framework. Accordingly, societies evolve from feudal and military societies to industrial societies. For Saint- Simon, industrial society, which he defines as the “positive” stage, differs from other stages in terms of production, technology, information, science, division of labour, class structure and political structure. The correct answer is C. 

In the Dictionary of Sociology (Marshall, 1998), political science is defined as an academic discipline which examines power and distribution of power in various types of political systems. The correct answer is E.

Auguste Comte  examines “society” within an evolutionist and positivist framework. Comte used the term “sociology” for the first time and established a tradition known as positivist sociology. 

-Comte’s works were partly inspired by the works of the thinkers of the Enlightenment; however, he was sometimes critical of these works. In fact, although he was influenced by the scientific approach of the Enlightenment, Comte was critical of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment philosophy,
which - he believed - triggered destructive radical changes in history.

Alfred Schutz’s sociological phenomenology approach examining the reality of everyday life, and the ethnomethodology approach dealing with the empirical examination of the reality created during daily interaction. The phenomenological sociology of Alfred Schutz, based on the philosophy of the German philosopher Edmund Husserl, has attracted considerable interest in this period.

a

With the technological changes in the 20th century, a new type of society emerged. In the post industrial society, the majority of the production shifted from industrial production to service sector.

The answer is E because at the micro level, namely microsociology, sociologists investigate the smallest levels of interaction, such as the everyday behaviors in face-to-face interactions. Microsociology studies may include interactions between friends or couples, or only the perception of the self.

Unstructured (not controlled, in-depth) interview is an interview design in which the researcher interviews a few people but gathers very in-depth and detailed information. Interview forms are not used in unstructured interviews; the interviews are conducted in a conversation environment. In life story interview the researcher interviews people who reflect the research problem. The interview includes the entire life course in details. The researcher tries to understand the social fact s/he studies through the life experiences of the participants. Oral history is similar to the life story interview. However, in oral history, not the entire life is subject to the interview. The interview includes only a part, a historical period of the life of the participant. The case study is the examination of a social fact in its own social context, through a variety of data gathering techniques. In case study, only a single critical case is examined rather than a larger sample of the population, and the researcher focuses only on this case rather than more general indicators of the research problem. Thus, the researcher may make longer and more detailed observations. The “case” in the case study may be an event, an institution, a group or a person. For example, the case may be a specific hospital, a specific strike, or a person who had an occupational injury. The analysis of documents like books, newspapers, magazines, reports, records, correspondences, proceedings, diaries, memoirs or letters are called document analysis or documentary analysis. There are a number of analysis methods for analyzing documents, such as content analysis or critical discourse analysis. The correct answer is Choice D.

Sociologists talk about families, groups, politics, economy, factories,
religion, authority, etc.

Scientists do not take any finding as absolute truth. Any finding in the future research may confute the former information about a fact. Scientific knowledge accumulates by gathering new information, rejecting theories and developing better ones. Therefore, E is the correct answer. 

Sociology has three levels of inquiry. At the macro level, sociology investigates the structure and change of the societies or social institutions. In other words, macrosociology studies the analysis of large-scale social organizations such as political or economic systems. At the meso level, which is known as mesosociology, sociologists study the experiences of groups and the interactions between groups. At the micro level, namely microsociology, sociologists investigate the smallest levels of interaction, such as the everyday behaviors in face-to-face interactions. Microsociology studies may include interactions between friends or couples, or only the perception of the self. The correct answer is Choice D.

D

Comte believed that positivism would bring great advantages to human beings both in natural sciences and social sciences. He argued that positivism should ultimately become a religion by replacing other traditional religions

The extrinsic factors are not totally under control in
quasi-experiments. In quasi-experiments, the control group is not constituted in the beginning of the experiment. After observing the results of the experimental group, a new group is selected in order to make a comparison. This new group has similar characteristics with the experimental group but it is not formed in the laboratory environment.