Durkheim defines collective conscience as the common beliefs and feelings of the members of a society.

Social democracy: Social democracy can be defined as a hybrid political tradition that is inspired by socialist ideals and an existing political atmosphere and determined by liberal values.

There are 4 main approaches in sociology covering politics. First one is the functionalist approach, second is the pluralist approach, third is the elite theory, and the fourth is the Marxist-conflict theory. On the other hand, there is no approach called the formalist approach. Thus, the correct answer is C. 

In this distinction, the base consists of economic structure (means of production and relations of production) and superstructure consists of law, politics, religion, family and ideologies. According to Marx, there is an interaction-based relationship between economic base and superstructure. However, economic base has a determinant effect on superstructure. Therfore, B is the correct answer. 

Achieved Status is a social position that a person achieves by his/her own effort, ability, skill and success. A person’s status is not always ascribed to him/her completely, and most of this status is achieved by the individual’s own effort, endeavour, and success. Education and equal opportunities are important factors for individuals to gain a distinct status. A person’s knowledge, ability and talent affect his/her upward mobility in his/her job to have a successful career.

Mercantilists predicate the prosperity of a nation on mines, and deposits of silver and gold that the country has instead of the power of production. The correct answer is B. 

a

Not every action is a social action. Social action is an action which is oriented towards the past, present or future actions of the other people. For example, taking revenge out on someone or buying a burglary insurance are social actions. If two people on the way change their directions because of only personal reasons, this is not a social action. However, if they think they are going to crash each other and they change their directions in order to prevent this clash, this is a social action. In short, if an action is made towards other people’s actions, it is a meaningful social action.

The analysis unit of economy is market. It only analyses the relations of economical providence, actions and production, circulation, distribution and consumption for two actors. To put it differently, actors of economic activity are the producer (firm) and the consumer (household). 

Feminism can be defined as the accumulation of knowledge developed by feminist writers critically against the male dominant information system in order to support the organized struggle of women subject to gender discrimination. Although feminist theoretical production has occurred in the same time frame as the development of sociology, feminist theory remained on the margins of sociology, ignored by the central male formulators of the discipline until the 1970s. According to feminism, all approaches to sociology have been developed by men and/or from a male perspective and the problem of women and gender has been largely neglected in these approaches until the birth of feminist approach to sociology.

While political science is concerned with how public administration and administrative organizations will work efficiently, political sociology is concerned with oppression and constraining elements of bureaucracy. The correct answer is D.

A

Hunting and Gathering Societies: The earliest type of societies is hunting and gathering societies, which exist since 50,000 BC to present. However, today there are only a few hunting and gathering societies in the world. This type of society consists of small numbers of people, such as 30-40 people. People are nomad and gain their livelihood from hunting, fishing, and gathering edible plants. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Fundamental Concepts of Poverty

Absolute poverty is an individual’s or a family’s lack of income and consumption
by failing to meet the basic biological needs like food, shelter and clothing.
Absolute poverty is also expressed as livelihood poverty because it is evaluated
on the requirements for minimum living necessities.

Social exclusion is defined as people’s exclusion from economical, social,
political, and cultural segments of the societies they live in (Bhalla and Lapeyre,
1999).

Vocation cannot be included as an example of ascribed status as it is an achieved status and one needs to put an effort into it, such as getting an education and pursuing opportunities to have a vocation.

Political sociology is the study of power and the intersection of society and politics. Unlike political science, political sociology is a sociological branch which is concerned with the social causes and consequences of given power distributions within or between societies, and with the social and political conflicts that lead to changes in the allocation of power. In other words, it is a sub-discipline that analyses political authority’s institutional regulations, of functions of political authority and transformation of political system. Whereas political science deals mainly with the machinery of government, the mechanisms of public administration, and the formal political realm of elections, public opinion, pressure groups, and political behaviour, sociological analysis of political phenomena is concerned rather more with the interrelationships between politics, social structures, ideologies, and culture.

Economic sociology analyses attitude and behaviours, economic structure and relations that are the subjects of the economy considering social, cultural, and political facts, which are excluded from analyses by the discipline of economics. Therefore, the correct option is A.

consideration of only the basic physical needs        

Critical Theory emphasizes that individuals are simply manipulated in such societies through mass culture and become entities that tend to think and search less since they are seduced by the irresistible power of consumption. At this point, critical theorists have argued that the problem of modernity is not just the injustices and inequalities of the capitalist system, but that all modern societies are organized by instrumental rationality. E is the correct answer. 

E