There are four main approaches in sociology covering politics.

Workers are often paid less than they deserve and
the remaining “surplus value” becomes the “profit” for the capitalist. As such, surplus value refers to the difference between the value produced by the workers and he payment they are given.

The field of study of economy as a sub-discipline of social sciences is based on some suppositions. The first hypothesis is that the sources are limited. The second is based on an assumption that human needs are infinite. The third presumes that people act rationally while they fulfill their needs on choice and preferance. Scarcity and choice are the two main concepts of the economics discipline. The analysis unit of economy is market. It only analyses the relations of economical providence, actions and production, circulation, distribution and consumption for two actors. To put it differently, actors of economic activity are the producer (firm) and the consumer (household). The correct answer is C. 

Karl Marx developed a theory called historical materialism, which had a great influence in the field. In this theory, which emphasizes the importance of economic factors rather than thoughts and values in social transformation and can be defined briefly as “embracing history from a materialist point of view”, Marx specifically focuses on production. The correct answer is E. 

Differently from Marx, Weber suggests that social status and political power of individuals constitute an important part in the social stratification besides economic factors.

The correct answer is C. 

The positivist approach developed by Comte is based on the assumption that social life has an objective reality just like natural life. From this point
of view, positivists argue that quantitative data based scientific methods used in natural sciences can also be applied in social sciences. According to this method, only observable, measurable and classifiable phenomena have a scientific reality, and truthful realities about a society can be explored and analyzed through scientific methods. The correct answer is D.

Socialization is the interaction process in which the individuals learn the language, values, norms, attitudes, knowledge and skills, in short, the culture of the society they live in. Socialization is the process by which a society transmits its social values, norms, and culture to its members. Socialization must not be confused with socializing. Socializing is interacting with other people, the members of the family or workplace, or friends. Socialization is the process in which the individual learns how to be a member of the society he/ she lives in, the process that prepares them to function in social life. Therefore, the correct option is A.

The case study is the examination of a social fact in its own social context, through a variety of data gathering techniques. 

The answer is C.

Elite theory sees power in society as being monopolized by a small minority (or elite).

Max Weber

Charismatic authority is based on the devotion of followers or subordinates
to what they define as the exceptional characteristics of a leader. These characteristics are mostly seen as “supernatural, super-human, or at least exceptional compared to lesser mortals”. The correct answer is C.  

Mercantilism

Durkheim states that if this collective value system guiding individuals and ensuring the continuity of social life weakens due to rapid social changes, a dangerous fact called anomie, emerges. Anomie is a fact that refers to normlessness or ambiguity with regards to basic values of society.

In totalitarian states, all institutions are totally controlled. This type of state is deprived of legitimization. In or­der to control society as a whole, any kind of violence and fear can be used. There is an absolute supervision and surveillance on the subordinates. On the other hand, dictatorships and oligarchies are forms of authoritarian states. The correct answer is B.

Comte summarizes his ideas about this point of view in his well-known evolution theory known as “law of the three stages”, which he developed under the influence of the studies by Saint-Simon.

Saint-Simon contributed to the development of sociology with his studies, and Comte used the term “sociology” for the first time and established a tradition known as positivist sociology. Thus, he is agreed to be the founder of sociology by some researchers in the field.

It is the functionalist approach in which society is evaluated in terms of basic needs since it advocates the idea that the state has emerged as a necessity within the society. These needs that functionalist approach underlines are maintaining order, relations with other states/governments and directing the system.

Rational-legal authority is likely to be seen in developed, democratic nation-states. Therefore, the correct answer is C.

Comte acknowledges that there are similarities as well as differences between natural reality and social reality. Therefore, he claims that not only scientific methods but also historical methods should be used while studying the social world.