Chapter 5: Geopolitical and Geostrategic Elements Specific to Africa and the Middle East

Introduction

The concepts of geopolitics, which expresses the relationship between the determination and execution of policies towards a geography and the physical and human factors on this particular geography, and geostrategy, which deals with the military and physical factors related to that geography, have been reflected in the foreign policy of the states since their emergence and played active roles in shaping the relevant policies.

Middle East Geography and its Geopolitics in the Historical Process

All of these theories were built on geographical, physical and human characteristics of a particular region. These characteristics of the region are called geopolitical and geostrategic elements of that region.

Although the geopolitical and geostrategic approaches of the particular region have a multifaceted and multidimensional intricate structure, the geopolitical perception towards the Middle East and Africa which has evolved in the historical process has focused on certain elements today.

Apart from these, the sociology is based on religion and sect of community in the Middle East affects the policies of the Middle East from a geopolitical and geostrategic perspective.

Middle East Geography

The concept of the Middle East was first stated in 1902 by Alfred Thayer Mahan, a historian and strategist of the American Navy, in his article entitled “The Persian Gulf and international relations”. After Mahan’s work, the concept of Middle East was accepted and used in foreign policy field.

Historical Perspective on Middle East Geopolitics

The Middle East has been home to many civilizations throughout history. The most important characteristic of the region is that it is a center where monotheistic religions emerge.

Jerusalem is the place where the struggle between religions in the Middle East is clearly seen. The focus and spirit of the crusades in later years was to conquer this city.

Towards the end of the 1800’s, Middle East geopolitics underwent a radical change. Religion factor, the most important geopolitical element in the region, has started to remain in the background and has experienced a shift in the ground.

The opening of Suez Canal connecting the Mediterranean first to the Red Sea and then to the oceans in 1869 has become the main element of Middle East geopolitics.

The star of the oil, which dates back thousands of years, suddenly shined when it was used in engines in the late 1800’s.

In the early 1900’s, the Middle East geopolitics, where the struggle between Islamic sects and the importance of Suez Canal in the sea trade and the domination of oil deposits became the main factor, with the establishment of Israel in 1948, the struggle between religions has become a decisive factor.

In the same period, the international politics, which was shaped by the ideological polarization of the Cold War, has also taken place in the Middle East.

Recently, the most important event affecting the geopolitics of the Middle East was the uprising of the peoples in the Middle East and North African countries known as the Arab Spring against the political regimes.

The Elements Shaping Geopolitics and Geostrategy in the Middle East in the 21st Century

The elements that affect geopolitics of a region are usually the elements that have an impact-response connection with each other.

Today, there are many factors determining the geopolitics of the Middle East. Among these, energy security, terrorism, strategic straits and canals, axis of religion and sects are the main elements.

Energy Security

The energy security problem is a policy area that emerged as a result of the proliferation of oil use and the expansion of security understanding. The Middle East geography is a region that has been important geopolitically for many years with its energy resources. This importance continues to increase.

The issue of security of natural resources causes geopolitical thinking to remain related to modern world politics.

As a result, due to both the amount of reserves it has and its power over price determination, the region, the Middle East has come to mind at once when it is stated World Energy Security. This situation has become the most important factor affecting the geopolitics of the Middle East.

Strategic Straits and Canals

The Hormuz Strait, which connects the Persian Gulf to the oceans, and the Suez Canal and the Bab- ül Mendap Strait, which connect the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, are the most important waterways of the region and the World.

Strategic importance both of Babül Mendap Strait with Suez Canal and Basra Gulf with Hormuz Strait have increased with energy security concerns. This situation caused these waterways and canals to take an important place in the Middle East geopolitics.

The Issue of Terrorism

The problem of terrorism has a perception that the world’s public opinion is almost identical to the Middle East. Especially for Islamic-speaking terrorist organizations, the Middle East seems to be a center.

Conflict of Interest in the Axis of Religion and Sects

As in the history of the Middle East, today the region is of great importance in terms of religions. This situation causes the competition in the Middle East, conflicts of interest to drift to the ground of religions easily.

Reflection of Geopolitics and Geostrategy in the Middle East to Foreign Policy

Geopolitical science, which refers to the planning of states according to geographical elements in foreign policy, is actualized as geostrategy in military practice. Geopolitical elements of the Middle East have been reflected as geostrategies in foreign policy practices of both regional countries and global actors.

Plans or Practices of Iran in Terms of Geostrategy and Geopolitics

Immediately after the Islamic Revolution, Iran managed to perceive the geopolitical situation in the region and adopted a strategy to use its first geo-strategic move as a means of securing its national identity in the axis of Shiism.

Iran aims to achieve a variety of opportunities both in political, economic and military fields and to consolidate its security. This geostrategy of Iran has been clearly seen in Syria and Yemen’s civil war.

Another geostrategic implementation of Iran is planned through energy security.

Plans or Practices of The USA in terms of Geostrategy and Geopolitics

It is possible to say that the Middle East policy of the USA is shaped by the influence of Israel. the most important instrument used by the United States is its enormous military power. The foundation of the geostrategy in the Middle East is shaped by military force.

Plans or Practices of The Russia in terms of Geostrategy and Geopolitics

The main geostrategy of Russia was built on sectarian differences as focus on energy security and military security in the Middle East.

Russia’s geostrategy in the Middle East has been established to protect Iran-Syria pipeline and to prevent the Kurdish Corridor project supported by the EU and USA. In this context, the greatest support for the Assad regime in the Syrian Civil War came from Russia.

The Geography of Africa and its Geopolitics in the Historical Process

Africa ranks third among Asia and America, with a surface area of 30 218 000 km2 . Africa is bordered by the

Mediterranean to the north and is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal in the northeast. The continent is adjacent to the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean in the east. Hot belt climates (Equatorial and savanna) are also effective in the continent.

African Geopolitics in the Historical Process

It is seen that Africa’s geopolitical importance has undergone a change and experiences in four different phases:

• First stage of importance of ports and coastal colonies,
• The second phase, where controlled soil size and mines are important and colonialism is spreading into the continent.,
• In the third phase of the Cold War, it was seen as an area of ideological conflict and reconciliation
• The fourth phase in which energy resources are important and are subject to global competition, especially in the USA and China. (Yüksel, 2014, 14)

The Geography of Africa Today

The African continent hosted the element of being a ‘field of conflict’ in geopolitics. It is clear that the importance of African geopolitics during the Cold War period for a superpower is not the result of Africa itself.

Elements Shaping Geopolitics and Geostrategy in Africa in the 21st Century

In this period, three elements have emerged in the rise of the new geopolitics of Africa:

Energy resources: Strategic resources such as precious minerals, mineral deposits and hydrocarbon reserves in various parts of the continent have led Africa to take part in global energy strategies.

Anti-terrorism strategy: Africa’s problematic political and social structure has been the basis for the formation of many terrorist organizations.

International politics: The plans for the continent of the global powers that see each other as rivals have had a multidimensional impact on the value they have given Africa in their foreign policy (Yüksel,2015,17).

Reflection of Geopolitics and Geostrategy in Africa in Foreign Policy

The behavior of international actors or actors in international politics to protect their interests or to gain their interests is called a strategy. Thus, governments use their strategies to achieve their goals they set as a foreign policy target.

Plans or Practices of France in Terms of Geostrategy and Geopolitics

After recognizing the independence of the former colonies, France has maintained a deep bond with them called French Africa today, in political, social, cultural and economic dimensions.

Plans or Practices of The USA in Terms of Geostrategy and Geopolitics

Although the United States identifies a discourse with the theme of human development, civil life and solidarity in the document, which aims the objectives of its policies towards Africa, like any international actor, it determines its policies on the axis of interest.

U.S. Africa Command, with partners, counters, transnational threats and malign actors, strengthens security forces and responds to crises in order to advance U.S. national interests and promote regional security, stability and prosperity.