Chapter 3: Geopolitics in a Globalized World

Dynamics of Geopolitics and its Relevance in a Changing Global World

Geography, territory as a political construct, is also relevant from the perspective of international law as well. According to Montevideo Convention which sets out the parameters of a state spells out four aspects for a political entity to be properly called a state: defined territory, permanent people, centralized authority and sovereignty.

Territory refers to a physical space, mostly to land. But it should be noted that territory is not an ordinary type of land and that it is a qualified and political component. As a physical space, territory is an integral element of the state which cannot possibly be separated from it. In the definition of modern nation state, physical space is attributed to the state as an integral and indispensable element. In other words, only a state has territory which holds a political connotation and implies a monopolistic political control. In other words, a state, by definition and out of legal necessity, has to have a territory; and it is not possible to speak of a state without a defined territory. Additionally, only one state has monopoly and control over a territory; therefore, there is connection between territory and the exclusive jurisdiction of a state.

“Defined territory” implies that the borders of a state are properly identified and ascertained and that their inviolability is stressed and protected by the community of states. The borders of nation states are specified with utmost certainty, often by imagined lines that exist as constructions.

The UN Charter strictly prohibits use of force by a state against another in any circumstances except for selfdefense purposes. Thus, acquisition of territories by force is no longer possible and if, despite being prohibited, a state maintains control over the territories of another state, the international community would have the obligation of not recognizing this unlawful act.

Other means of influence now gain greater importance in interstate relations to become robust in geopolitical terms. Diplomacy is particularly a vitally important tool for the foreign policies of states in order to make better use of geopolitical opportunities and advantages in a system where coercion and use of force is sanctioned. Improved relations with other states will contribute to the geopolitical stance and reservoir of a state in the changing circumstances and premises of international law and politics.

The nature of the territory often determines the quality of geopolitical advantage associated with the geography. Among other things, the natural resources, proximity or remoteness to conflict areas, the climatic characteristics, neighborhood with prosperous or politically stable (or unstable) nations are all factors that contribute to the geopolitical inventory.

Different Aspects and Dimensions of Globalization

The literature spells out different aspects and dimensions of globalization. Firstly, there is economic globalization. Some scholars place emphasis upon multinational enterprises and information technology as driving forces of the process, as well as their global impacts. Market economy plays a determinative role in economic globalization.

The scholarly debates particularly focus on whether or not this process has eroded the significance of nation-states. The role of the state in the political stage has been questioned with the advance of the process of globalization in the 1990s. Global integration has been observed in the field of economy because globalization has made itself apparent in the movement of money, goods and services, leading to a change in the role of the nation state in economic affairs.

On the other hand, general conviction among IR scholars suggests that the nation-state is the most important (if not the only) actor of the international political system. Featuring a centralized authority of government and exclusive jurisdiction, the nation state is considered the most effective and prevalent mode of political organization. The change in the global system shows itself in the decline of the role of the state in this system.

Since Second World War, two major political camps have shaped the course of world politics. The European states often place emphasis upon international cooperation, peaceful dispute settlement and strong compliance with the international norms whereas, in some instances, the US tended to pursue a unilateral policy that excluded cooperation and settlement under international legal rules.

Post-Cold War Era

Both the concept of geopolitics and studies attributed to it have become less popular mostly because frequent references have been made to the concept in the drafting and implementation of the policies during the Second World War. Due to the pejorative connotation ascribed to the term, academic circles have remained indifferent and aloof to these studies for decades. This has been the case during the Cold War era as well. The strategic policies of the great powers in this era divided the states as pawns of the game in ideological terms and portrayed these states as dependent units within the system with limited abilities. The geopolitical discourse in this period suggested that the strategic significance of the borders were the lead factors in international politics.

During the Cold War period, the term has been associated with the military strategies and redefined in reference to military objectives which had to bear significance in terms of geopolitical significance. The military terminology in this era made frequent references to the discussions of geopolitics as an analytical tool that contributed to the understanding of strategic considerations and priorities. But through the end of the Cold War era, the term geopolitics started to become part of the critical approaches and scientific initiatives.

The Post-Cold War period, particularly the 1990s, is marked with growing interest in the study and understanding of geopolitics. Geography has been made a part of political discussions and analyses. The reason for enthusiasm and interest is the uncertain direction of world politics after the collapse of the Soviet Union and end of the bipolar world and the rush to identify the possible trajectory of global developments under the new circumstances.

Geopolitics has become even more relevant in this age of information and mobilization.

Geopolitics as a Major Component of Global Politics and of National Foreign Policy

There has been no change in the physical geography of the states in the aftermath of the Cold War which brings about a wave of transformations in many areas. Political geography remained unchanged whereas significant alterations have been observed in modes of international cooperation, agreements and power relations that have great impact upon the geographical status and geopolitical position. In other words, the efficiency of power circles and regional powers changed.

Meaning of the Geography of the States

In its new form, geopolitics help students, scholars and practitioners run predictions on the future course and trajectory of the international political system and develop strong and firm strategic simulations for the potential actions of the individual states and alliances.

Geopolitics as a discipline has enriched the debates in this new era. Attention has been diverted to discussions on the usefulness of the ideologies simply because the Cold War era was seen as a clear outcome of ideological clashes.

Geopolitical Theories and Approaches

A revival of geopolitical thinking has been observed in the academic and political circles since the end of the Cold War.

These new policies to be pursued by the states in order to make a better use of the geopolitical advantages have to be innovative and creative, and thus incorporate diverse tools and means as well, borrowed from different fields including economic, social, political and military domains. For instance, some referred to “geo-economic weapons” (Luttwak, 1993, 307-326) while some others placed emphasis upon the pure impact of geopolitical knowledge and the power of political discourse (Hlihor, 2014, 64).

Diversification and complexity in the international affairs further led to specialization and compartmentalization in the definitions and the contents of other relevant areas and disciplines, including geopolitics. By nature, geopolitics is already associated with a number of relevant fields; but this connection and association became stronger in the era of globalization. While this could be an asset for the discipline itself, divisions have also emerged among analysts studying different aspects of geopolitics.

Responses of International System to Geopolitical Challenges and Threats

The Current Understanding of the International Relations

The current understanding of the international relations creates correlations between sovereign privileges of the states, and their moral and legal responsibilities by virtue of being recognized as states. This is to suggest that even though it serves as the basis of state acts and autonomy, sovereignty has also been transformed into the source of state responsibility in certain instances where the members of international community have established a shared code of morality or normativity.

Human Security

Human security refers to a shift from emphasis upon state’s own national security concerns to the protection of the security of the individuals in international politics. In other words, individuals have, to a certain degree, become a subject of interstate relations and international law particularly when their survival as groups of people is at stake.

Interplay Between Geopolitics and Interests of Nation States

International relations underlines that the international system is anarchic as there is no centralized authority to make and enforce the rules that would apply to the actions of the states. A corollary of this premise is that in such an anarchic environment, states will have to rely on their own resources to survive, often referred to in the IR literature as “self-help.”

Geopolitics and National Interest

National interests in this era have often been associated with security which entailed either defense or expansion of the national territories. States which managed to make better use of their geopolitical advantages and to exploit the geopolitical disadvantages of their rivals would most likely be able to advance further in terms of protecting national interests.

With the advent of globalization and the emergence of socalled new world order, the nature of international politics began to change. Only this time, the states had to consider the complex nature of the interstate relations and the global impacts of geopolitical threats and opportunities.

National interest is no longer confined to the abilities, power and assets of an individual state; it encompasses domestic, regional, and even international parameters at the same time. Due to the growing complexity in defining national interest, states are compelled to consider progressive options including pursuit of cooperation and alliances that require accommodation of national interests of other states as well.

Interdependent International Environment

It is now necessary and extremely important for the political and military establishment of each state in the contemporary multilateral and interdependent international environment to pursue and find a common ground between national interests of their own and the common interests of the international society.

Within the study of geopolitics, national security, particularly the military security of the state, could be evaluated from the perspective of several major factors including historical territory, nationalities, the structure of the state, the possession of and ability to use natural, material and human resources as effectively as possible.

How Relevant is Geopolitics in an Era of Complex Interdependence?

Interdependence is a term referring to the intricate ties and bonds between the states and intergovernmental organizations that cannot be possibly ignored in the analysis of world politics. The theory of interdependence basically suggests that due to the inevitable engagement between states in political, military and economic realms, international cooperation is a must and a wise move for the overall betterment of all states and of the international system.

The Energy Card and Russia

The theory suggests that it is not possible for a state to pursue absolutely independent policies as in one way or another, everything is closely connected and interdependence makes it necessary and compulsory for all states to at least consider cooperation with members of the international community. Any subject matter can be evaluated from this perspective including military, energy, health, economy, international trade, aviation, sports, communication etc.

To better illustrate how interdependence works in international politics, the Russian energy could be used as an example. It appears that Russia has been using energy as a tool of political leverage in its foreign policy after solidifying its geopolitical and military might.

For instance, Russia pursued a policy in reference to infrastructure from the Soviet era for some countries and under this policy, some countries have been supported and favored whereas some others have been punished. Russia sold natural gas to Armenia, Belarus and Ukraine under Kuchma administration at a subsidized price whereas attempted to use the energy as a means of punishment against Georgia, Moldova, Baltic states and Ukraine under Yuschenko administration.

It should be noted that Russia is at the heart of the pipelines and plays a determinative role in transportation of the energy resources extracted in its soils and in the territories of other countries. Given its huge energy resources and its geopolitical advantage associated with the pipelines, it could be argued that Russia will dominate the global energy markets.

Can it go on Like This?

However, domination of Russia in energy sector does not necessarily mean that it could achieve its goals by acting unilaterally. Unless devising an integrated economic policy, Russia may not be able to sustain its supreme position in global energy markets. It is even argued that Russia may eventually face a serious natural gas crisis (Goldthau, 2008, 61). Additionally, the United States and the EU members responded to the Russian foreign policy activism by imposing economic sanctions. Therefore, the obvious advantage of Russia in energy markets does not generate absolute superiority in interstate politics.

Significance of the Study of Geopolitics in a Globalized World

Both global and territorial spaces have existed together for a long time; in other words, there has always been, to some degree, an interaction between the territorial and the global in the history of interstate relations. This interaction has become even more visible after the popularization of globalization as an analytical tool.

Geopolitics of Globalization

Association between geopolitics and globalization can be maintained in three different levels in the era of globalization. The first is the geopolitics of globalization. There is a need to focus on globalization as a term that can be analyzed from a geopolitical perspective. The second takes place at the national level where geopolitics develops with reference to the difference between states and can be called geopolitics of development. The third is an increasingly complex system governed by globalization which can be called “low geopolitics.” This is the type of geopolitics without consideration of military strategies but with real impacts on everyday life of the people.

Globalization has its own unique geopolitics because without geopolitical backing, the system it has created is doomed to fail. This is particularly the case for the leading actors that seek to use the globalization process as a governing framework of international politics.

The geopolitics of development is focused on the efforts and acts of the states. Because globalization better works through governmental institutions, it is only a myth that globalization leads to the end of the nation-state (Mann, 1997).

Regulatory activities can also take place at the transnational level as observed in the presence of a number of such organizations in a number of fields where states are unable or reluctant to make investments. The regulatory activities of these institutions encompass a myriad of areas and transcend the borders of the nation states. Because they do not have direct reference to geography or territorial security, they can be regarded as part of “low geopolitics,” as opposed to “high geopolitics.” Therefore, it is fair to argue that geopolitics and globalization have always gone and moved together rather than being antithetical to each other.

Geopolitical Analysis and Global Issues

The study of geopolitics moved from the conventional debates, mostly on the significance of geography in international politics, and maintained relevance between non-geographical matters and the politics of geography in an attempt to identify the geopolitical value and outlook for the governance of world affairs.

Thanks to this ability of adaptation, it is now possible to study, for instance, the geopolitical aspects of the Arab Spring, the conflict in Syria, the consequences of climate change, depletion of ozone layer, tribal disputes in Africa or the issue of nuclear disarmament with particular reference to a specific strand of geopolitical studies. It is therefore safe to argue that even though geography and what it connotes in political terms are not the only or primary determinants in world politics, geopolitics still bears relevance in explaining the behaviors of actors as it is equipped with the necessary skills and tools to both work in tandem with the IR theories and to respond to the changing circumstances.