Chapter 5: Samples of Regional Cooperations

Introduction

Generally, regional cooperations develop between neighboring countries that have geographical and historical ties. Economic, political and military close cooperation can also provide solidarity against the outside world and a more effectiveness in international politics.

Multi-purpose Organizations

The Organization of American States (OAS)

History of the Organization: The Organization of American States (OAS) is the oldest and largest interstate, regional organization in the world. The OAS has emerged as a result of a series of inter-state American conferences which started in the 1820s that established the Pan-American Union in 1910. It was Simon Bolivar who proposed the idea of American Union. In his thought, the American states should unite their military powers for possible European colonialism.

At the First American States Conference, from October 1889 to January 1890 in Washington D.C., it was decided to establish the American Union. Eighteen American states taking part in the meeting signed the treaty for the establishment of the American States Union mechanism. Then, in 1910, it was transformed into the Pan-American Union.

From its foundation to WWII, the Union organized many conferences. The main purpose of the conferences was to establish permanent agencies and institutions among the American states. When it came to In 1938 American States concluded many agreements for peace and security.

Establishment of the OAS: After the end of the Second World War, representatives of 20 American states came together in Chapultepec, Mexico, to determine the future of inter-state relations of American Republics. The main topic of the talks was the protection of peace and security in the region, the development of the cooperation in the hemisphere and the economic aid of the United States. Latin America states wanted the continuation of US economic aid. In this context, negotiations continued, and the parties signed an Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) in 1947. A year after the Rio talks, the states that came together in Bogota, and the Organization of American States was established.

Structure and Objectives of OAS: The primary objective of the organization is stated in Article 1 of the Charter:

“The American States establish by this Charter the international organization that they have developed to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence. Within the United Nations, the Organization of American States is a regional agency.” OAS is designed to get into the act in the large scope. Inter alia, OAS holds in four main pillars: a) democracy, b) development, c) human rights, and d) security.

The Organs of OAS: OAS has many organs. The most important are: General Assembly, Advisory Board, Permanent Council, Inter-American Council for Integral Development, Legal Committee, Human Rights Commission and General Secretariat.

The General Assembly is the supreme organ of the OAS. Each member state is represented in the General Assembly. General Assembly is the democratic body of the OAS. It convenes annually to debate current issues, approve the organization’s budget, and determine policies to govern the other OAS organs and units.

The Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs has two main functions. Firstly, in accordance with the Charter, this organ is to act as a consultation unit. The other function is more general: to consider problems of an urgent nature and of common interest to the American States.

The General Secretariat is the permanent administrative and bureaucratic organ of the OAS. The General Secretariat is responsible for implementing the policies set by the General Assembly and the Permanent Council.

OAS and Regional Issues: General Assembly accepted “Strategic Vision of the OAS,” in 2014, which reiterates that the four core pillars of the organization’s mission are;

• strengthening democracy;
• promoting and protecting human rights;
• advancing integral development; and
• empowering and encouraging multidimensional security.

The American Human Rights Commission, created with the Convention, is an autonomous body of the OAS and is one of the two branches of the American system of the human rights protection system. The Commission’s basic functions are examining complaints about human rights violations in any contracting state, preparing and publishing human rights reports on members, and ensuring that the ratification of the convention by the signatory states. It also has the responsibilities of being in court, advising on the interpretation of agreements, recommending amendments to the convention and treaties, and provoking OAS to impose sanctions on its members.

Through the Multidimensional Security Secretariat, OAS aimed to develop regional policies and strategies against situations that would put safety at risk and to strengthen co-operation in security affairs. The Committee is responsible for establishing and enforcing the OAS’ regional security strategies and policies.

OAS has played an important role in encouraging democracy since the many American countries transformed civil governments at the end of the cold war.

In 1991, the General Assembly’s Resolution 1080 emphasized that “one of the basic purposes of the OAS is to promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect for the principle of non-intervention.”

Critics of OAS: The biggest criticism about OAS is that the organization is seen as a defender of the US’ interests. Especially, it has remained the silent US military interventions in Latin America.

Union of South American States (UNASUR)

History of the Organization: The Union of South American Nations was established on 8 December 2004 with the Cusco Declaration (Peru) signed by Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela in order to develop regional integration efforts in South America under a single roof. In the 2007 South American Energy Summit, held on Margarita Island of Venezuela, the Heads of State agreed that the integration process, which was already under the name of South American Community of Nations, would change into the Union of South American Nations, UNASUR. The UNASUR Constitutive Treaty was signed on 23 May 2008 in Brazil and entered into force on 11 March 2011.

Main Purposes of the Organization: UNSAUR, a multipurpose organization, aims to improve the integration process about cultural, social, economic and political spheres among its members. It aims to remove regional socio-economic inequalities and poverty, strengthen regional democracies and increase civil society participation in governance processes through common policies in the areas of political dialogue, social projects, education, energy, infrastructure, finance, and environment.

The Organs of UNASUR: The organization is composed of the Council of Heads of State and Government, the president pro tempore, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Council of Delegates, the General Secretariat, and twelve sectoral councils.

The Council of Heads of State and Government is the supreme body of UNASUR. It sets up the main policies, action plans, programs and projects for the South American integration process.

The Council of Foreign Ministers is the second body of UNASUR. It is responsible to implement decisions taken by the Council of State and Government Heads to promote political dialogue and cooperate regional integration process.

The Council of Delegates is the third body of UNASUR and consists of one representative from each Member State. It applies the decisions taken by the Heads of State and Government and Ministers of Foreign Affairs and prepare draft decisions, resolutions and regulations for consideration by the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs.

The temporary presidency is the head position and representant of the UNASUR. President pro tempore is governed by a year and rotated among the member countries between each UNASUR meeting.

The General Secretariat is the core organ of the organization’s bureaucracy. It is headed by Secretary General. The general secretary can not be elected twice in a row from the same nationality. The Secretary General does not ask or receive instructions from any government or agency outside the organization.

Councils of UNASUR: UNASUR is trying to realize its aims through eleven councils established in different fields.

The South American Defense Council (CDS) is a mechanism that seeks to foster exchanges in the field of security between the countries that make up the Union of South American Nations.

The main objective of CSS is to encourage and to coordinate UNASUR’s common policies in the field of health between the member states. Organization of African Unity (OAU) - African Union (AU).

The primary aim of the Council is to develop citizen participation, civic education, democratization, and electoral systems in UNASUR.

South American Energy Council of UNASUR (CES) is responsible for the cooperation and complementation among the Member States in matters of energy in the region.

South American Science, Technology and Innovation Council of UNASUR (COSUCTI)’s main objective is to promote and to strengthen cooperation in the fields of science, technology, and innovation.

The main aim of South American Council of Social Development of UNASUR (CSDS) is strengthening regional social development goals and building of the South American Social Observatory.

The basic objective of South American Economy and Finance Council of UNASUR (CSEF) is to remove poverty and to overcome inequalities in the region through justice, social and human development.

South American Education Council of UNASUR (CSE) is established to ensure and to promote the right to education for everyone by strengthening regional educational integration. Security Organizations North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

South American Council of Infrastructure and Planning of UNASUR (COSIPLAN) is formed to implement regional infrastructure integration and to conclude the building of network, transport and telecommunication infrastructure according to sustainable social and economic development criteria.

World Drug Problem Council (CSPMD)’s main objective is to build anti-drug system in regional and sub-regional levels.

The main goal of South American Council on Safety, Justice, and Coordination of Action Against Transnational Organized Crime (DOT) is to ensure the safety of its citizens. In this context, it is aimed to combat international crime organizations by strengthening the coordination of justice mechanisms and national actions.

As a multi-purpose organization, UNASUR interests many issues and problems in South America region. Security, Economy and Finance and Energy are the most important topics.

Organization of African Unity (OAU) - African Union (AU)

History of the Organization: The African Union (AU) (formerly the African Union Organization OAU) is the first institutionalized structure of African continental cooperation. The “union thought” in Africa emerged at the end of the 19th century. It was shaped by the idea of Pan-

Africanism that aims to provide support and encouragement among peoples of Africa. It was shaped on:

1. Racial Pan-Africanism (1900-1945)
2. Continental Pan-Africanism (1945-1960)
3. Ideological Pan-Africanism (1960- today)

Purposes and Structure of the OAU: the aims of the organization comprises to promote the unity and solidarity of the African States; to coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa; to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and independence.

Although “unity in Africa” is counted as a goal, it is unclear whether the coalition that is expected to take place in the future will be federal or functional.

Establishment of the African Union: The OAU emerged as the organization of regionalization in Africa during the decolonization period but, from the 1970s the transformation of OAU was discussed due to international economic and political developments. The Heads of State and Government of 53 African countries attended the Durban Summit in 2002 and the African Union was formed by merging the African Union Organization and the African Economic Community.

Purposes and Structure of the African Union: The main purposes of the AU consists to achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the peoples of Africa; to defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of its Member States; to accelerate the political and socioeconomic integration of the continent.

The Organs of AU: The structure of the AU differs greatly from the OAU. Only Heads of State and Government Council is preserved. The AU’s basic organs are as follows:

The Assembly of the Union is chaired by the Heads of State and Government or their representatives and it is supreme organ of the AU. The chairperson of the assembly is elected by the member states for one-year. The authorities of the Assembly comprises establishing a common policy of the Union; to make decisions about the reports and recommendations given by other organs of the Union, to evaluate an application for accession to AU.

The Executive Council consists of the foreign ministers of the member countries or the ministers/ officials assigned by the member country. The responsibilities and the jurisdictions of the Executive Council involves Foreign trade, energy, industry and underground resources, nutrition, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry.

Pan-African Parliament was established for the purpose of economic development of the African peoples and the economic integration of the continent. It is the consultative assembly of the African Union, a continental organization of 53 African countries.

The Court of Justice is an institution that is in a position to ensure the smooth processing and good governance of human rights in Africa. The functions of the Court of Justice consists to undertake studies and research on human and human rights in Africa and to bring related materials together, to establish regulations and rules aimed at resolving legal problems related to human rights, to ensure the protection of human rights, to interpret all provisions in the official texts of the Union as needed.

The Commission is the secretariat of the African Union. The Commission is consisted of the president or vicepresidents, commissioners, and advisers. The mission of the Commission is to be a driving force for African integration and the continent’s development process.

The Permanent Representatives’ Committee (PRC) is responsible for the preparation of the agenda of the Executive Council and for informing about the relevant issues.

The specialized technical committees are bodies in the AU responsible to the Executive Council. Each STC is composed of ministers of the Member States and senior officials for the relevant area.

The ECOSOCC functions as an advisory body of the Union. The council consists of representatives from member countries. ECOSOCC mandates contributing, through advice, to the effective translation of the AU’s objectives, principles, and policies into concrete programmers, as well as evaluating those programs, undertaking studies and making recommendations.

There are three separate and specific financial institutions with their own internal statutes, namely the African Investment Bank (AIB), the African Central Bank (ACB) and the African Monetary Fund (AMF). The role of these institutions is to implement the economic integration provided for in the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community.

The Peace and Security Council (PSC) was established as the main body of the AU for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflicts. It is a key element of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA), which is the umbrella term of the main AU mechanisms to promote peace, security, and stability in Africa.

The AU and Regional Issues: Regional issues involves:

• Regional Security and Peace Keeping
• Peace and Security Council (PSC)
• Human Rights
• Economic Integration

Critics of African Union: AU’s the most important problem seems to be democratization. The organization is also referred to as the dictator’s club. Another problem in the organization is the economic and political problems of the members and the conflicts between them.

Security Organizations

History and Background of the SCO: The tension between Moscow and Beijing, which started at the beginning of the 1960s, softened in the mid-1980s. In 1991, the SinoRussian rapprochement continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 1996 the “Shanghai Five” was formed by Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. The subsequent annual summits of the participants of the “Shanghai Five” were held in Moscow in 1997, Alma-Ata (Kazakhstan) in 1998, in Bishkek (Kyrgyzstan) in 1999 and in Dushanbe (Tajikistan) in 2000. By the time of the Bishkek summit, the establishment of permanent cooperation mechanisms had begun and a new international organization started to take shape. In 2001, Uzbekistan joined the organization in Shanghai meeting. In 2002, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization Charter was signed at the SCO summit in St. Petersburg.

Objectives of the SCO : The objectives of the organization comprises to strengthen mutual confidence, friendship and good-neighborliness between the Member States; the development of multidisciplinary cooperation in order to maintain and strengthen peace, security, and stability in the region, to help build a new democratic, just and rational political and economic international order.

Organs of the SCO : The Council of Heads of State (CHS) is the supreme body of the SCO. It determines the priorities and main directions of the SCO’s activities, solves the fundamental issues of its internal structure and functioning, interaction with other states and international organizations, and also considers the most pressing international problems.

The Council of Heads of Government (CST) adopts the SCO budget, which is formed on the basis of the principle of equity participation, considers and solves key issues related to specific, especially economic, areas of development of interaction within the Organization.

The Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM) considers and resolves the issues of the daily activities of the SCO, including the preparations for the CHS meetings, institutes actions to implement decisions of the Organization and holds consultations within the SCO on international issues.

Heads of Ministers hold regular meetings to study specific issues in the development of related fields within the framework of the Organization.

The Secretariat is a permanent administrative body of the SCO and is based in Beijing. It is entrusted with an organizational and technical support for activities that are conducted within the framework of the SCO, participation in the development and implementation of documents of all bodies, preparation of proposals for the annual budget.

The Council of National Coordinators (CNC) coordinates and manages the daily activities of the Organization, conducts the necessary preparation of the sessions of the CHS, CST, and CFM.

The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) designed to facilitate the coordination and interaction of the competent bodies of the member states in the fight against terrorism, extremism, and separatism.

The SCO Interbank Consortium (IBO) was established in 2005 as a tool to assist in the implementation of economic cooperation projects approved by the SCO states.

Main Purposes of the SCO: Main concerns of the SCO comprises:

• Security cooperation
• The SCO energy club
• Economic cooperation
• Cultural and humanitarian cooperation

Criticism of the SCO : Shanghai Cooperation Organization is criticized largely concerning the insolvency of its activities, in particular in the fight against terrorism and the protection of regional security. There is no real cooperation in these areas to counter the threats of terrorism, separatism and the fight against drug trafficking at the regional level.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

History and Aims of the NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is the military-political regional alliance uniting most of the countries of Europe, the United States, and Canada. It was founded on April 4, 1949, in order to protect Europe from Soviet influence. In accordance with the North Atlantic Treaty of 1949, NATO aims to “strengthen stability and improve welfare in the North Atlantic region” and “The participating countries have joined their efforts to create a collective defense and preserve peace and security”.

Out-of-Area Operations: NATO was initially deceived as a regional / bloc organization. The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all. So, they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.

From the first years of NATO, the organization had actions or initiatives outside the specified areas in the treaty. This situation is defined as Out-of-field. The issue of the out-of-territory problem first emerged with the intervention of Lebanon in 1958.

NATO after the Cold War: NATO’s main goal is still the collective defense, but after the Cold War, there has been some variation in the purposes of the organization.

NATO would conduct no military operations during the Cold War. The missions and the arrangement of NATO’s military assets have evolved sharply since the main threat has converted from by the Warsaw Pact armies into the crises or wars that may break out in near or far geographical areas that will threaten NATO’s interests. This extension of NATO’s field of intervention to new missions beyond the strict defensive framework of territory defending dates back to the early 1990s when the Organization used its military forces beyond the NATO borders. However, France fiercely opposes NATO’s transformation into a global security organization.

The Bosnian War was NATO’s first operational field of intervention. NATO later intervened in Kosovo. The NATO Summit on 24 April 1999 endorsed the Alliance’s Strategic Concept, which would be in effect until 2010. The most important change appears in the statement that conflict prevention and crisis management may also include military operations, which are called ‘out-of-area missions’.

After the September 11 attacks NATO has been performing maritime operations in the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean since 2001. However, many of the major US-performed joint military operations are not within the NATO framework.

It can be argued that NATO is a sui-generis organization and its security agenda has been gradually expanding. NATO is a post-regional security organization.