All are true of Cicero except D.  He argued that egoism was against nature, therefore he was against the Epicurean views, which suggested giving up with social issues and searching for individual happiness. 

Thomas Aquinas claims that the best form of government is a mixed government combining elements of democracy, aristocracy, and kingship. Thus, the correct answer is A.

Free population of Athens had four strata: Eupatrides, geomores, demiurgus, and thetes-the nobles, small farmers, craftsmen, and poor peasants, respectively. Both inter-class and intra-class struggles between these groups had led to different types of administrations such as Aristocracy, oligarchy, plutocracy, and democracy. Contrary to the Sparta, political debates and competition were very vivid in Athens and participants were also large in numbers. The reason behind the prosperous philosophical and political tradition of the ancient Greece is demonstrated in association with this background that someway illustrates a form of what we call today as democracy.

According to The Muqaddimah, the power of muk is materialized only through the execution of law, development cannot be achieved without justice, wealth cannot be acquired without development, the major criterion Allah will evaluate humans is justice, and people cannot survive without acquiring wealth. So, the correct answer is A.

Al-Farabi argues that ultimate happiness is a state associated with afterlife but this ultimate happiness is attained by active intellect – thinking and reasoning.

Contrary to idealist philosophies of Plato and Aristotle, a materialist contribution to social philosophy was important.

One of the main separations of Sophists from the traditional Greek philosophy was the aim of their investigation. Till to Sophists, the Greek philosophy was a search for the objective reality. However, the aim of the Sophists was not contemplative, but practical. Hence, they became an educational movement in Greek polis. They were teaching the art of life and how to control it to the
youth.

The critical perspective against to the established institutional conceptions of the political thoughts is called as the “postmodern turn”.

Aristotle’s Politics was translated into Latin for the first time in the mid-1260s, in another word, 13th Century. Although the Politics did not become part of the core curriculum, it was closely studied by many of the leading philosophers of the scholastic period. Notable commentaries on the Politics were written by Thomas Aquinas and Peter of Auvergne. William of Ockham gave a concise and profound summary and interpretation of Arsitotle’s political theory, too.

Eschaton is a theological term, meaning the final event in the divine plan; the end of the world. It stems from the Greek word eskhatos, meaning “the last” 

The Christian theologians of late antiquity are referred to as the Fathers of the Church. The most influential of them in medieval Europe was Augustine; others included Ambrose, Cyprian, and Gregory (ibid). Many of the Fathers were influenced by the Platonism and Stoicism, as every educated person became acquainted with in the ancient world.

There are various terms that are identified and pointed out as ideals of political thoughts. When we look at the history of the political thoughts and how they have been developed, we can see that liberty, freedom, justice and equality are frequently pointed out as an ideal. On the other hand, ideology is not an ideal, albeit one of the main concepts in political thought. It basically refers to the production of meanings, symbols, and ideas to be drawn on whilst interpreting various dimensions of the social reality.

Sparta was a city on the south of Peloponnesus peninsula and consists of few villages. 

People’s access to the material conditions of life sets the background of political debate. Expressing this through a famous statement, a well-known historical materialist, namely Karl Marx, claimed that “mankind always takes up only such problems as it can solve; since looking at the matter more closely, we will always find that the problem itself arises only when the material conditions necessary for its solution already exist or are at least in the process of formation” (Marx, 1904 [1859], pp. 12-3).

From a general perspective, followers of historical materialist tradition perceived the social circumstances as putting their stamp on the way people formulate their problems regarding social justice, equality, social order and good government. Not the ideas that derive out from historical conditions and intellectual context, but the material conditions and the inherent contradictions within material circumstances were constitutive with regards to the history of mankind and history of political ideas.

“In the Latin West, his metaphysics and theory of the soul had a profound influence on scholastic arguments, ın the Islamic East, too, he was the basis for considerable debate and argument. Even the philosopher-theologian Al-Ghazali, in his attack (The Incoherence of Philosophers) admitted that no serious Muslim thinker could ignore him. In general, Avicenna could be claimed to be the principal representative of philosophy in Islam.” Thus, the correct answer is B.

Argumentum ad hominem means argument toward human; and used when the criticism/objection is directed against a certain individual/society in person, rather than against the opponent’s thoughts/ideas.

Augustine had offered to prove that by Cicero’s definition, the Romans never had a republic: “I shall attempt to show that no such commonwealth ever existed, because true justice was never present in it” (City of God II.21, p. 80), since the Romans did not obey the true God (ibid, XIX.21). But this is an argumentum ad hominem.