Free population of Athens had four strata: Eupatrides, geomores, demiurgus, and thetes –the nobles, small farmers, craftsmen, and poor peasants, respectively. Both inter-class and intra-class struggles between these groups had led to different types of administrations such as Aristocracy, oligarchy, plutocracy, and democracy.

Jean-François Lyotard criticized the statements given in A to D which were proposed by the earlier approaches. He believed that the reconfiguration of the society was necessary as earlier approaches were inadequate to respond to the new circumstances.

In ancient Rome, the elderly and the prominent members of the society, most of who were actual members of the Senate were thought to have auctoritas.

The legal-rational authority is mostly identified with the modern nation state by social scientists.

Equality and slavery are opposite of each other.

The postmodern theory can be considered as a critical methodological perspective against both the contextual and Straussian approaches in terms of how to approaches political thoughts and developments. Emphasizing the multidimensional characteristic of social reality that changes from person to person and from time to time, it highlights the importance of looking at the political thoughts in relation to discourses and discursive frameworks of the narrator. 

It could be argued that a majority of the literature on political philosophy in the Islamic world is based on the relations between ethics and politics, as well as idealized criteria for rulers- e.g. philosopher and/or prophet-kings (modelled on the personality of Muhammad the prophet).

According to Socrates,virtue was a form of knowledge and thus something that could be taught to people.

Rule of law forms the basic principle of a functioning democracy.

Despite the fact that Christianity did not condemn any property holding, and that medieval political writers had seen property as natural and right and demanded respect for it, Christianity seemed to suggest a type of voluntary poverty, and a type of sharing goods which might be related with communism. The early Christian community in Jerusalem seemed to be united towards this as a social ideal, which made them share a single heart and a soul (Kilcullen-Robinson 2017: 5).

Protectionist policies aim to preserve the economy from harsh competition or particular sectors from foreign competitors in order to speed up the development and increase the pace of the economic growth.

Political ideas in the Bible concerning obedience might be summarised as follows:

- The human beings are usually ruled by kings or emperors. There are very few traces of republican institutions in the Bible.

- Kings are quite often evil; and are tyrants and enemies of God. The ruled often share the bad deeds of the rulers.

- The kingship of King David is a model although David also often sinned

- Subjects must obey rulers, even the wicked. It is wrong to disobey, and especially to make any attack on the person of the ruler

- But obedience to rulers is always limited by obedience to the commands of God. That means, the supremacy and the sovereignty of God is thought as superior to any worldly
rule or ruler.

In the middle ages, the strong relation between jurisprudence and politics was much emphasized by Abu’l-Hassan al-Mâwardi, who could be claimed to be the first Islamic political scientist.

Medieval thinkers took many ideas from the law texts. The doctrine that either the pope or emperor (or both) has a ‘fullness of power’ is also among those ideas. Thus, the correct answer is E.

The Christian theologians of late antiquity are referred as the Fathers of the Church. The most influential of them in medieval Europe was Augustine. Thus, the correct answer is E.

The term of policy in political thought mainly refers to the outcome of struggle over resource distribution and the way governments address the social-political problems to achieve their goals.

the struggle

the agreement

the understanding

the perception

the peace

All except (a) are in agreement with Averroes’ beliefs.

In the 19th century France, the terms left and right were used to delineate the supporters of the Republic vis-á-vis the supporters of the monarchy. Traditionally, the left came to be associated with social change and progress, while the right came to be associated with order and preservation of the prevailing and dominant social values. 

For quite a number of scholars who are from the liberal tradition of the political philosophy, the state is perceived as an evil and is merely necessary to provide order while at the same time ensuring the implementation of the contracts between individuals and actors such as formal institutions or civic organisations. Further intervention into the social sphere is conceived as an intervention to human freedoms.