Means of production include tools, machinery, factories, materials and land; and together with labor power, they constitute productive forces. E is the correct answer.

Locke sets some limits to property: The limit of needs: We must leave enough, and as good, to those who need it. The limit of spoilage and destruction: God does not give the world and its possessions to us to spoil or destruct them. These are supplied to meet the need of individuals. Individuals should not possess more than they need. The limit of labor: Ad individual can only possess what he contributed his labor for.

He argued that the state had legislative, executive and confederative bodies (Locke)

He put forward the theory after examining the British governmental system

He said that the key elements of the state are legislative, executive and judicial

According to Montesquieu, the state has three basic powers

On the other hand, Scottish Enlightenment has some basic assumptions, such as spontaneous order and market economy. This is the most important difference of the Scottish Enlightenment from the French Enlightenment thought. As mentioned above, French Enlightenment thinkers knew that they would resist the change projects of the society. For this reason, they thought that society would have to force change, which means to pressure people for social transformation (Köktaş, 2016,p. 558). They also favored the use of violence and oppression in this direction. The Scottish Enlightenment opposed this understanding, with the idea of spontaneous order. According to this understanding, most social institutions did not appear in the framework of a pre-designed project. Social and political institutions have emerged spontaneously as a result of human needs. Thus, a natural order not previously designed was established. It is also necessary for the social and political rules and institutions to rise from the very beginning. More precisely, institutions and rules will already be drawn from society and politics if they are not needed. Hence, the political power must not intervene in this self-functioning scheme.

 It is clear that the sense of self-regulation is quite different from the general approach of the French Enlightenment. The French Enlightenment defends the active intervention of the social life in the name of “progress” of political power. In contrast, the Scottish Enlightenment asserts that the state should refrain from interfering with social life as much as possible. This has allowed the concept of “limited state”, which Locke also defended, to come to life. From this point of view it can be said that the Scottish Enlightenment plays a very important role for the liberalization of the process of development. As a matter of fact, this understanding emerged in the same direction in terms of ideas on the economy. 

Malatesta advocated a form of communism which involved the common ownership of property and the socialization of production. D is the correct answer.

Hobbes lists the chain of causes that creates the state of war as follows:

1. People are equal in the state of nature: The main reason causing war in the state of nature is the fact that people are equal in terms of their physical and mental abilities.

2. Inequality causes insecurity: Natural equality brings forth equality of the hope of achieving goals. Because every human being has equal chances with respect to achieving their goals, they have equal hopes. If they both want the same thing, the problem
arises there.

3. The result of insecurity is war: Individuals want to rule others and to dominate them
to get rid of the state of insecurity. The state of equality requires to constantly cope with dangers to survive and to dominate others.

Bakunin is known as the founder of collectivist anarchism and violent anarchism. E is the correct answer.

Different from the utilitarian model of social justice that advocates giving priority to the aggregative interests of society, the libertarian model of social justice highlights the importance of certain inalienable rights of an individual, such as earning and holding the private property.

Capitalism is an economic mode of production depending on the private property in which the means of production are owned by a small group of individuals. D is the correct answer.

The correct answer is D.

Germany is relatively behind in terms of the emergence of capitalism and the bourgeoisie. This has caused the political influences of the idea of Enlightenment to be felt more strongly in Germany. In this regard, the German Enlightenment thinkers
have been the major advocators of the “enlightened despotism” in relation to their argument that social change, including the concept of progress, is necessary.

Hobbes wants to show in which conditions people will live in the absence of a certain political power to organize people with the state of nature, that is, in a situation where there is no sovereignty. According to Hobbes, the state of nature is not historical. When people are in the state of nature, they experience a constant uncertainty, conflict and violence. The state of nature is a state of war, which Hobbes has formulated as “a man is a wolf to another man”. Hobbes lists the chain of causes that creates the state of war as follows:

1. People are equal in the state of nature: The main reason causing war in the state of nature is the fact that people are equal in terms of their physical and mental abilities.
2. Inequality causes insecurity: Natural equality brings forth equality of the hope of achieving goals. Because every human being has equal chances with respect to achieving their goals, they have equal hopes. If they both want the same thing, the problem arises there.
3. The result of insecurity is war: Individuals want to rule others and to dominate them to get rid of the state of insecurity. The state of equality requires to constantly cope with dangers to survive and to dominate others.

Immanuel Kant is the most important name of the German Enlightenment idea. He has also provided one of the best-known definitions of Enlightenment: “Enlightenment is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.”

Spinoza claims that what seem strange, absurd or bad to us in nature do so since we cannot grasp the elements and their organizing principles in its entirety (Spinoza, 2018: 409). Therefore, it can be considered that the point of departure for Spinoza’s political theory is similar to that of Hobbes. They

both claim the following propositions to be the basics of their political thoughts:

1. Men are conditioned by the nature in such a way that they realize their own benefits.
2. Political order or the state, although it limits men, is based on rationality.

Like Machiavelli, Spinoza sought to understand relations of political power practically, scientifically, and dispassionately. Like Hobbes, he held that citizens are well-advised to give up their right and power to the state in return for the protection that it can provide to them in their pursuit of selfpreservation.

Unlike Hobbes, however, Spinoza emphasized the breadth of the practical limitations on the individual’s concession of power to the state; and also, unlike Hobbes, he located a human being’s highest advantage not in mere continued life and the pursuit of pleasure, but in the achievement

of adequate knowledge and its resulting peace of mind (Garret, 1995: 8). In Spinoza’s thought, the theoretical privilege of democracy is expressed through the closely interlinked usage of the concepts of the social covenant and of reason. 

The Enlightenment Thought, born in the Eighteenth Century, shows a characteristic that places the reason at center. It can be said that the Enlightenment was symbolically a period beginning with the English Revolution of 1688 and reaching the peak by the French Revolution of 1789. In earlier periods, though a “new” politics and society emerged, the thinkers did not take a complete stance against to the “old” one. However, in the process that started with the Enlightenment, almost everything about the old one became clearer. In this respect, the Enlightenment has risen over an anti-tradition.

He adopted the dialectic as the essential logic of history 

He did not accept the metaphysical assumptions of Hegel 

He claimed that the dialectic was a conflict among worldly interests 

He considered the dialectic as a means of accomplishing historical progress through struggle 

As Machiavelli wrote about securing national unity in a divided Italy, Bodin wrote his works in France, which secured its national unity but was on the brink of civil war because of religious divisions and feudal political feuds. Therefore, what concerned Bodin was not the stage of the constitutive power-violence but the stage of maintaining legitimacy and acceptance. Thus, Bodin is a philosopher who represents the transition from the feudal system to the period of absolute central monarchies. He is also the founder of the understanding of a state which is absolute and superior inside and absolutely independent against the foreign countries. Therefore, the correct option is E.

Hume

William Godwin (1756-1836) Godwin is commonly accepted as the founder of modern anarchism. He was born in a Calvinist family and became a minister like many of his ancestors.