In the corpus of Roman Law, it is the first time in the history of political thought that justice was defined in relation to individual’s rights. C is the correct answer. 

According to Hume, reason is (and has to be) the slave of passions. Moreover, he claims that a particular passion cannot be considered as rational or irrational. They might be based on correct or incorrect beliefs, or they may confirm or contradict with other passions. Hume’s philosophical investigations define moral beliefs as individual experiences and emotions that emerge from the sympathies of the related parties.

-David Hume: The most important name of the Scottish Enlightenment is David Hume. Epistemologically, Hume, like Locke, argued that knowledge depends on senses. 

-According to Hume, justice is not a virtue that people have innately.

Machiavelli had two different but interrelated objectives. His personal objective was to return to his active duty in the state. His second objective arose from rejection of the past. According to Machiavelli, the Italian city states, including Florence, often had instability for that reason and they obviously tended to decline. As a result, they were dominated by external powers such as Spain, France or the Papacy. Machiavelli’s second objective was of political: to ensure stability and to free entire Italy from any kind of secular or religious external control. Therefore, The Prince goes on these two lines that overlap at the same time (Tannenbaum,2017: 182).

Honneth constructs his perspective based on the identity model of Hegel.

It asserts that the reason alone won’t be enough to understand man and society (Scottish)

It emphasizes the limitation of political power to protect individual rights (Scottish)

Its thinker stand on the construction of a new political and social structure by opposing the “old regime” (French)

Its thinkers focused on the process of education in order to save people from the darkness (French)

The basis of the Scottish Enlightenment is the new understanding of science with John Newton and John Locke’s libertarian ideas. Newton has established the belief that nature is a mechanism that works with certain laws. In this context, it appears that it is possible to solve the mystery of nature if the operating rules of the mechanism in question are present.

The correct answer is A.

Climate Theory
Montesquieu has said that many political administrations in history have established their own rules. In the same way, he expressed that there are different forms of governance that are different in every part of the world (Beriş, 2016, p. 510). There are reasons for this differentiation, as it cannot be said that the conception of management came about by chance. He has benefited from the theory of climates to find these reasons. According to Montesquieu, climate and land determine the general characteristics of societies. Social characteristics are also reflected in the forms of management. In the same way, the emergence of social rules has the effect of these variables. In the northern countries where cold climate prevails, people are more laborious and disciplined.

For Rawls, considering his understanding of the original position in which everyone is under the veil of ignorance, reason tells us that social inequalities are tolerable inasmuch as they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society. Therefore, B is the correct answer.   

Hobbes lists the chain of causes that creates the state of war as follows:

1. People are equal in the state of nature: The main reason causing war in the state of nature is the fact that people are equal in terms of their physical and mental abilities.

2. Inequality causes insecurity: Natural equality brings forth equality of the hope of achieving goals. Because every human being has equal chances with respect to achieving their goals, they have equal hopes. If they both want the same thing, the problem arises there.

3. The result of insecurity is war: Individuals want to rule others and to dominate them to get rid of the state of insecurity. The state of equality requires to constantly cope with dangers to survive and to dominate others.

Therefore, the correct option is B.

The advent of new trade routes across the globe considerably shifted the economic superiority from feudal institutions to the newly emerging capitalist class.

Apart from reconciling the Ancient Greek legacy with the allegorical interpretation of the shari‘ah, Averroës is worthy of attention in his analysis of the degeneration of state (as he idealized). While doing so, he was most commonly in line with the Platonic thought; but he didn’t neglect adding examples from his own history either, as later would be done by Ibn Khaldûn. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. Averroës is worthy of attention in his analysis of the degeneration of state.

John Rawls

Plato points out justice in his famous opus – Republic- as a virtue of individual that is different from the contemporary understanding of justice as virtue of institutions. The correct answer is choice C.

With the end of the 15th century, the consequences caused by economic and political changes that were ongoing for years gave rise to radical transformations in the medieval organizations. That was a period where means of communication were very limited and largely controlled by the church and aristocracy. In addition to this, trade and commerce were somewhat restricted for merchants.

Nonetheless, the development of communication tools and techniques such as compass, advanced binoculars and astrolabe, advent of new trade routes across the globe considerably shifted the economic superiority from feudal intuitions to the newly emerging capitalist class. This gradually freed the commerce trade and liberalized economic relations at the local, regional and global level.

The substructure is divided into two factors, the means of production and the relations of production. The means of production are the resources and technology that a society makes use of. Means of production include tools, machinery, factories, materials and land; and together with labor power, they constitute productive forces. The relations of production between social classes are determined by the affiliation between humans and the means of production.