Learning is the process by which practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior.

Association means linking two events or stimuli that occur together in space or time.

The cognitive approach is mainly concerned with internal events. According to the cognitive approach, psychologists should consider what is going on in the mind to understand behavior and they should study mental events scientifically using controlled experiments.

Behaviorism studies behavior as the relationship between observable stimuli and observable responses. There is no reference to mental processes in the mind.

Unconditioned Response (UCR) occurs automatically in response to UCS; therefore, it is mostly involuntary. UCR is an unlearned response to a UCS.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that a stimulus, which produces no response, can acquire the ability to produce one.

The food refers to unconditioned stimulus and the bell refers to neutral stimulus.

During spontaneous recovery, CR is observed although UCS is not presented. If
UCS is presented with CS again, CR reappears, so CR’s power strengthens. This
is different from spontaneous recovery because once UCS is presented, it is like
going back to the acquisition phase. Hence, the association between UCS and CS
is established again.

Stimulus generalization means to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS. So, learned response occurs not only to the original CS, but also to other stimuli, which are similar to original CS.

Stimulus discrimination occurs when learned response is given to a specific stimulus, which is the original CS but not to other similar stimuli. Hence, CR is not observed in response to other stimuli, which are similar to the original CS.

As a result of experimental successive trials, he concluded that learning is incremental.

Reinforcer
any stimulus which increases the probability of the preceding response.

Punisher
any stimulus which decreases the probability of the preceding response.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning associating behaviors with their results and consequences.

In the ‘positive punishment’ procedure, after the behavior occurs, an unpleasant stimulus is presented. As a result, the future probability of that behavior decreases.

In continuous reinforcement schedule, every response is reinforced every time it occurs.

In partial reinforcement schedule, every response is not reinforced; only some of them are reinforced.

In VI, the reinforcer is presented after a varying, unpredictable period of time.

Insight learning

Latent learning refers to a type of cognitive learning in which learning occurs without any obvious reinforcer. In this type of learning, there is also no demonstration of the learned behavior until a reinforcer is given. So, learning becomes apparent when a reinforcer or an incentive is present.

A cognitive map is a mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings.

According to Social Learning Theory, learning occurs by observing and imitating others in the environment.

This result indicates that learning a behavior and performing it are two different things. This is actually an example of the learning–performance distinction. Apparently, all children learned how to act aggressively through observation, but some of them did not prefer acting like this. Learning might occur but the behavior may not be performed. So the behavior may not be observable at any time.