Cooperation: Three basic principles address potential solutions to uncooperative relations among countries: (1) dominance; (2) reciprocity; and (3) identity, according to Goldstein and Pevehouse. In dominance, there is a hierarchy, with those at the top of the hierarchy controlling those below them. This is related to an understanding of “great powers” among states. But it can lead to resentment of those not at the pinnacle.  If those at the peak of this arrangement do not act in everyone’s best interests, oppression of those lower on the ladder might follow. Reciprocity, on the other hand, addresses the collective goods challenge by rewarding actions that contribute to the group good, and by punishing those behaviors that are simply self-interested. No central authority is needed, but it can demand very complicated accounting methods and monitoring to track positive contributions and negative actions. Reciprocity is relevant to international relations because it forms the backbone of most norms and many international organizations. Reciprocity can have a negative side, too: in the arms race or security dilemma, each state responds to an increase in military materiel and weapons by others. Identity is very complex in today’s world, particularly because shared identities may well ignore state borders and therefore be transnational. Essentially, this principle means that states redefine their interests and make sacrifice for the group possible. Identity groups will accept collective goods solutions that may not give them the best outcome as individuals, because what benefits there are remain in the family.

As also understood from the information given, three basic principles which address potential solutions to uncooperative relations among countries are dominance, reciprocity and identity, so the correct answer is A. The definitions for the other terms in the options are as follows:

Coalitions are sometimes thought of as alliances, especially when states come together against a common threat. Coalition means a joining together. Coalitions are always multilateral (with associates from different states).

Alliances: An alliance can be defined as “an agreement between two or more states to work together on mutual security issues. States enter such cooperative security arrangements to protect themselves against a common (or perceived) threat.