In his Images of Organization, Gareth Morgan explains this diversity in the field of organization theory and describes different perspectives on the organizations using metaphors4. He identifies eight metaphors:

1. Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.
2. Organizations as Organisms: By this metaphor, organizations relations with their surrounding is emphasized and their taking shape as a result of expectations and demands is expressed. And it is inspired by the general conceptual framework of systems and contingency theories.
3. Organizations as Brains: Learning and sharing information and knowledge are the basic concepts of this metaphor, which emphasizes that organizations also learn from their surroundings just like human beings.
4. Organizations as Cultures: Organizations formed by individuals coming together make those individuals create some values and gather around them. The common goal, vision, and values shared by individuals forming the organizations are defined by social constructionism using this metaphor.
5. Organizations as Political Systems: This metaphor is about the inclusion of organizations in the clash of power and interests and their resting some activities on political moves they make to find funding.
6. Organizations as Psychic Prisons: Organizations involve the unconscious, patriarchal, and repressed sexuality – both destructive and creative.
7. Organizations as Flux and Transformation: Organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction. Chaos and complexity theory explains this perspective.
8. Organizations as Instruments of Domination: Organizations are institutions in which people are alienated, oppressed and exploited, and they have to comply with corporate interests. Marxist studies explain this perspective.

As also understood from the information given the correct answer is “E”.