Role conception is defined as the perceptions of foreign policy makers on their nations’ position in the international system, its national interests and the key principles that allow it to defend them. They include perceptions of the general kinds of decisions, rules, commitments, and long term functions associated with these factors.

Singer defines the state level analysis as the investigation of the processes by which national goals are selected, the internal and external factors that have impact on those processes, and the institutional framework from which they emerge.

The correct answer is C.This term is the execution of a foreign policy decision in order to influence the behavior of an external actor for securing the interests of the agent. A deeper analysis of the concept requires a realization of the fact that foreign policy behavior “may include behavior that was accidental or unintended by the government, and in addition, decisions to do nothing may not leave any behavioral artifact; thus, there is slippage between the concept of foreign policy and the concept of foreign policy behavior.”(Hudson, 2008, p.12) Understanding the foreign policy behavior of states, usually, require an analysis of the decision processes. The capabilities of the actors and environmental factors affecting them are absolutely important as they provide the foundations that inform the foreign policy decision. However foreign policy behavior entails a two-way interaction.

Definitions of foreign policy can be listed as follows:

• the strategy or approach chosen by the national government to achieve its goals in its relations with external entities
• the sum of decisions made on behalf of a given political unit (usually a state) entailing the implementation of goals with direct reference to its external environment. Foreign policy inputs are those many factors that influence decision-making, whilst the observable outputs of foreign policy are a feature of state (and non-state) behavior within the international system
• A set of actions or rules governing the actions of an independent political authority deployed in the international environment
• Foreign policy in its traditional definition is the policy of a state towards external actors and especially other states. In contrast particularly to neorealism, it therefore does not primarily look at the international system as such but offers an ‘inside-out’ perspective to understand the decisionmaking process within a state that produces policies directed beyond the state
• The totality of a  country’s policies toward and interactions with the environment beyond its borders
• The totality whereby state actors act, react and interact. Foreign policy has been termed a boundary activity. The term ‘boundary’ implies that those making policy straddle two environments: an internal or domestic environment and an external or global environment. The policy makers and the policy system stand therefore at these junction points and seek to mediate between the various milieu
• Foreign policy is seen usually as the quintessential ‘boundary’ activity, at the interface between the domestic and the external spheres. While these spheres have never been completely separate, the boundary between them seems to have become more porous as a result of globalization – a multidimensional contested process that involves an increasing embedding of political, military, economic, social and cultural activities in politically unified (quasi) global spheres of activity

As can be understood from the information given the definitions which take place in the options I, II, III, IV and V are the definitons of foreign policy, so the correct answer is D. The definition taking place in the option VI is the definition of international relations.  

Whereas comparative foreign policy approach attempt to formulate a generalisable theory of foreign policy, case-study approach claims that each state has a unique foreign policy. The central belief in this approach is that any explanation of foreign policy behaviours through generalisations would cause the loss of unique factors that make up a foreign policy action and creating patterns, models and theories, and trying to fit the foreign policy behaviour of states into these, ignore the essence of foreign policy that is being explained.

Realist theories were formulated in the post-Second World War era, influenced by the idea that idealist theories failed since they proved unsuccessful in preventing or even foreseeing another world war. Therefore, according to the realist theory, the way to prevent wars was not moral values or international institutions but balance of power in the international system. Although the state is the main actor in realist theory, it is also attributed features from human nature. But human nature does not have positive connotations like it has in the idealist theories. The correct answer is C.

Constructivism in the broadest sense refers to theories that see the world as being socially constructed. Socially constructed world means that the existence of patterns, cause-and-effect relationships, and even states themselves depend on webs of meaning and practices that constitute them.

Sequential decisions involve a series of interrelated decisions, such as whether to intervene in Syria; increase or decrease troop levels; whether to withdraw or to stay; and, finally, when the operation should end.

I exemplifies constructive power while II exemplifies exemplifies comparative power. III is an example of veto power. 

The correct answer is B.The human development approach, developed by the Pakistani economist Mahbub Ul Haq (1934 – 1998), is based on the work of Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Kumar Sen’s work on human capabilities, “often framed in terms of whether people are able to “be” and “do” desirable things in life”. The human development approach focuses on creating fair opportunities and choices for all people. It is based on the notion that economic growth, generally understood as the growth of the GDP of a given country, would not necessarily lead to greater opportunities for the people. It is argued that ultimately enlarging people’s freedoms and opportunities and improving their well-being by ensuring an “equitable, sustainable and stable planet” is more important than achieving sheer growth of the economy. The first United Nations Human Development Report was published in 1990.

• Decision makers in every state work within a bureaucracy mechanism and are heavily influenced by the bureaucracy.
• Bureaucracy in foreign policy is a reflection of the need for expertise.
• Decision makers depend on the information provided by the bureaucracy, and what they receive as information is what the bureaucracy
  chooses to pass on. In addition to providing information, bureaucracies influence foreign policy by recommending options to decision makers.
• They narrow the range of options available to decision makers by presenting to them only those options that the bureaucratic organization favors.
• However, it would not be fair to think that decisions are made not by the leader himself but the bureaucracy because the information and even policy options received by the decision maker are oriented in general.

Components of foreign policy decision making are;
• identifying the problem,
• searching for alternatives,
• choosing an alternative, and
• executing the alternative.

Dynamics of foreign policy decision making resembles these everyday decision making dynamics, although the stakes in foreign policy decision making is much higher. Components of foreign policy decision making are;
• identifying the problem,
• searching for alternatives,
• choosing an alternative, and
• executing the alternative.

Decision makers in every state work within a bureaucracy mechanism and are heavily influenced by the bureaucracy. Bureaucracy in foreign policy is a reflection of the need for expertise and is organized to provide the gathering of information, its interpretation, and the transmission of it to the right people at the right time.

Standard Operating Procedures: Step by step instructions compiled by an
organziation to guide the bureaucrats carry out routine operations.

Reason d’état (Reason of State) : This term is generally the ultimate reason or purpose for someone or something’s existence. In the case of a sovereign state it represents the goals of the country the most important of which is to survive in the international system. The correct answer is A.

There are some other approaches, such as the game theory models, the expected utility model, or the synthesis models like poliheuristic theory which also assumes rationality in decision making. The rational actor model is still attractive because it is simpler and has relatively more predictive power. It places relatively few informational demands on the observer to explain and  predict a wide variety of decisions.

Although foreign policy is the engagement with the external environment, it is designed, formulated, and processed in the internal environment. The internal environment covers the whole political system with political parties, interest and pressure groups, and public opinion. However the internal environment is much more important as it is the setting which determines the decision unit that takes the decisions.

Cognitive dissonance of leaders is an individual factor whereas the others are among the internal factors

Interactive decisions are those involving at least two players who make decisions that affect and are affected by the other player’s decision. For example, if one state has to decide on an offer, say of a peace agreement, by another state, this is an interactive decision because it affects both its own future and the situation of the other state.