The nature of political regimes is not an external factor but a internal factor that influences foreign policy-making. 

The organizational process model is one of two new decision-making approaches introduced by Allison in his groundbreaking book (Allison, 1971). According to this model, the national government is not a unitary actor like assumed in the RAM, it is also not comprised of individual decision makers. Instead, it is, as Allison describes, “a constellation of loosely allied organizations on top of which leaders sit” (Allison, 1971: 79). Each organizational unit of the government has special function responsibilities.

Interest groups are private associations of people who have similar policy views and who pressure the government to adopt those views as policy. One type of interest groups is cultural groups which consist of people bound in terms of religious beliefs, ideological goals or cultural demands. Economic groups are another prominent form of interest activity. As international trade increases, they try to influence their governments for support of their interests in other countries. Issue-oriented groups make up another category of interest. Interest groups have no formal policy-making authority, and must rely on those people within the government who do have such authority to translate their policy preferences into decisional outputs.

When China’s rise coupled with growing isolationist tendencies in Trump’s America, such countries as Japan, India, South Korea, Philippines and Australia have begun to define their foreign and security policies from a more realist than liberal perspective

'National interest' is used generally in two senses in IR: as an analytical tool identifying the goals or objectives of foreign policy and as an all-embracing concept of political discourse used specifically to justify particular policy preferences. In both senses, it refers to the basic determinants that guide state policy in relation to the external environment. It applies only to sovereign states and relates specifically to foreign policy: the internal variety usually being characterized as ‘the public interest’.

Rational Actor model assumes that leaders act rationally in foreign policy. States are considered to be unitary actors behaving rationally in their relations with other international actors (Neack, 2008, 31-39). Rationality suggests that leaders undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the particular courses of action available to themselves and picks the one that would yield the highest amount of benefit and least amount of cost. Leaders make a preference ordering based on the expected payoffs of available courses of action

Mediator-integrator  is national role conception to define states that perceive themselves as capable of, or responsible for, fulfilling or undertaking special tasks to reconcile conflicts between other states or groups of states.

Constructivism in the broadest sense refers to theories that see the world as being socially constructed.

Leadership can be identified as an individual factor shaping foreign policy. 

Countries which gained their independence against imperial/colonial
powers in the past and built their national identity on the principles of strong nationalism and territorial integrity tend to be more circumspect and cautious in their external relations. If countries
are surrounded by numerous neighbors and suffer from siege mentality, their propensity to pursue, which is about their strategic culture. The correct option is A.

Foreign  policy is “the actions of an independent political authority’ because it is reserved to sovereign states.” However, foreign policy decisions are not made in an “international” vacuum. There is a strong domestic dimension of every foreign policy decision. As representatives of different states are displaying foreign policy behavior, they also have to market their “international” decisions and actions to their domestic stakeholders and constituencies. The direct result of this phenomenon is a broader decision-making process. As such “foreign policy-making will not be restricted to “traditional” foreign policy actors only and that other bureaucracies will become involved”, and even “actors from other countries may have an impact on the politics surrounding foreign policy making.” Hence, the study of foreign policy represents a challenge to understand how states, institutions and peoples engage amongst themselves both within, and with, a vibrant and complex international system.

As can be understood from the information given, the correct answer is E. All statements in the options can be used to affirm the argument “the study of foreign policy represents a challenge to understand how states, institutions and peoples engage amongst themselves both within, and with, a vibrant and complex international system.”

As being one of the essential concepts in International Relations, anarchy alludes to the absence of government or the lack of a central authority within the framework of politics. Anarchy derives from the Greek word “anarkhos” which means “without a ruler”. Put simply, states as the dominant actors of international relations have no absolute control over international system. Since states are political entities that recognize no equal domestically and no superior externally there, is no central authority in international relations. This provides an international politics with its anarchical characteristics. Even though they concur on the nature of the international system as anarchic, major theories of international relations treat anarchy in different ways. For example, while neorealists are motivated to work within the limits anarchy imposes structurally on state behavior, neoliberals are striving to ameliorate its effects.

As can be understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. Definitions of the other terms in the options are as follows:

Agency: For proponents of a structural approach to international relations, approaches concentrating on unit (actor) level, with their strong focus on the states, are somehow reductionist. That is because, although states are dominant agencies with persuasive power over their peers and other agencies, and with ability to exert consequential, though not definitive, influence on the outcomes, state behavior in and of itself is not enough to analyze either the interaction amongst the actors or the abovementioned outcomes. Point is, the “actions of groups, when aggregated, produce patterns of behavior that may be fundamentally different from the behavior patterns of the individual” agency. “In this sense, the behavioral characteristics and the impact of behavioral patterns, or interactions, of the aggregate are greater than, and differentiated from, those of its individual parts.

Interdependence: Interdependence implies that the increasing connectivity between the actors and issues led to a world where no actor is immune from the impact of what is happening to another. Interdependence is positively correlated with industrialization, modernization, and most importantly globalization.

Sovereignty: Originating with the Peace of Westphalia, ending the 30 Years’ Wars, in 1648, sovereignty, or more properly state-sovereignty, is an externally, i.e. by other actors, recognized right of independent, supreme or final decision-making and decision-enforcing authority possessed by the state, generally over given territory.

Milieu: Milieu represents the visible, more tangible and emotionally laden conceptualization for man’s environment.

Event data is a quantitative methodological approach in the study of international politics. It is initiated by Charles McClelland as a link between the general systems theories of international behaviour and the textual histories which provided an empirical basis for understanding that behaviour (Schrodt, 1995, 151) in 1960s.

Role Conception is defined as the perceptions of foreign policy makers’ on their nations’ position in the international system, its national interests and the key principles that allow it to defend them

Components of foreign policy decision making are;
• identifying the problem,
• searching for alternatives,
• choosing an alternative, and
• executing the alternative. "Consulting an expert" is not among the components of foreign policy decision making.

Harold and Margaret Sprout’s seminal work “Man – Milieu Relationship Hypotheses in the Context of International Politics” (Sprout and Sprout, 1956) played an important role in opening the way for critiques of the rational approach to foreign policy analyses. Sprouts examined the environment within which foreign policy decisions are taken by distinguishing the operational and psychological environment.

Case-study approach claims that each state has a unique foreign policy. According to this approach, each state has different social, historical, cultural backgrounds which consequently differentiate their foreign policies.

1962

Based on national role conceptualizations, some nations think that they are truly exceptional among others and should pursue a particular vision in their external relations. Additionally, some define themselves as endowed with an historical mission of transforming others in the image of their values and norms. The correct option is C.

In effect foreign policy involves actors within and outside of state boundaries; organized as different groups with both contradicting and overlapping interests, interacting through differing networks. In essence, the substance of foreign policy is determined by both domestic and international issues, and involves processes of negotiation, bargaining, conflict and compromise. Often, this dual nature of foreign policy issues creates tensions for the actors engaged in the foreign policy decision-making processes, as it generates both domestic and international effects of the said issues. Actors engaging in foreign policy, often, have to manage the tensions that are creating a compressing effect on their priorities forcing them to play a two-level game.

As can be understood from the information given foreign policy involves all processes which take place in the options, so the correct answer is E.