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The international system in the 17th and 18th centuries followed upon gains made in previous centuries. These were the increasing importance of state sovereignty and authority, the emergence of mechanisms such as the permanent
diplomatic representation, an increasing reference to international law, and the idea of striking a ‘balance of power’. In these centuries, the modern state system of today was being consolidated, and states tended not only to engage in conflicts but also to cooperate through increasing trade or by allying against common threats.

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The Renaissance began in the city-states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century which had an important role in the emergence of modern state because it brought about a hugely renewed interest in classical political ideas such as Athenian democracy and Roman law and started a passion for learning that affected numerous cultural and technological breakthroughs. Therefore, the correct choice is C.

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It could be said that the independence of Belgium effectively divided the Concert of Europe into two: Britain and France representing the liberal western bloc, and Russia, Austria, and Prussia its conservative eastern bloc.

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Under the guidance of Gustav Adolph, Cardinal Richelieu, and Jules Mazarin, a peace was finally negotiated. The congresses of Münster and Osnabrück, the first of their kind, led to the signing of the Treaties of Westphalia, the first multilateral diplomatic gathering in Europe to end a regional war and build a new order. Among those present were “145 delegates representing 55 jurisdictions, including the Holy Roman Empire and all the major kingdoms except Great Britain, as well as significant duchies, margraves, landgraves, bishoprics, free cities, and imperial cities. The correct answer is A. 

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In his early reign, Napoleon was lucky to inherit the best military machine in Europe. The French Army was a seasoned fighting force after continuous wars from 1793-1802, and the population of France provided more than enough conscripts motivated by a revolutionary spirit. France’s geographical and historical ties also enabled alliances with smaller states that actively provided men and resources to Napoleon’s campaigns.

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Mercantilism refers to an “economic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation’s economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers” (“Mercantilism,” 2019). As a policy, it was developed in Western Europe between the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution and
holds that states should increase their exports and decrease their imports. It was closely related to the evolution of the state-system of Europe insofar as it
advanced a state-centered structure of international relations (Evans and Newnham, 1998: 321). Wallerstein argues that mercantilism in the 17th century was a policy of economic nationalism centered on strong trade balances and the acquisition of bullion (Wallerstein, 2011: 37-38). Implemented to establish strong and self-sufficient economies, the goal was to maximize exports and minimize the import of raw materials (Sander,2001: 94).

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According to Paul Hirst, the modern state has three additional characteristics: 

First, a modern state has a definite territory with boundaries. 

Second, a modern state has exclusive control over that territory (sovereignty). 

Third, a modern state is the superior political actor (hierarchy).

Therefore, all the characteristics given in the question are correct.

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Yanıt Açıklaması: France and Spain were involved in the conflict as allies of the colonies. Moreover, the colonial militia and later Continental Army, led by George Washington managed to counter the royal threat. All the other sentences are true. "E" is the correct option.

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Social Darwinism is “the theory that human groups and races are subject to the same laws of natural selection as Charles Darwin had perceived in plants and animals in nature".

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Italian political philosophers such as Marsiglio of Padua and Dante rediscovered many of the old Roman and Greek texts. These texts helped them intellectually shake the power of the papacy by arguing that the secular authorities not only ought to be separate from spiritual ones, but also reign supreme. Therefore, the correct choice is E.

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The Interwar period between 1919 and 1939.

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While Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States (US), declared his Fourteen Points for a new world order in 1918, Vladimir Lenin’s socialist world vision emerged with the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917. Both alternatives greatly challenged the old Eurocentric balance of power politics.

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By 1918, Europe was in turmoil, and the old players began to lose their hegemony over the rest of the world. Ironically, the new visions and systems proposed for a new world order came from outside of Europe.

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The principal actors, known as the “Big Four”, were Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States.

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Entente Powers, also known Allies or Allied Powers. The major Allied powers in World War I were Great Britain (and the British Empire), France, and the Russian Empire.

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After the revolutions of 1848, the major powers found themselves in an atomized state in which each state shifted to its own individual interest rather than compromise on a common interest that promised mutual gains from the existing status quo. "C" is the correct option.