Ideas such as state sovereignty, independence, or international law began in the 17th century. Therefore, the correct choice is D.

The Balkan wars occurred 1912-1913.

It was the irredentist policies of the small Balkan states without an Ottoman “safety valve” that dragged a declining Austria-Hungary and destabilized Russia into conflict, pulling Germany and Britain into the morass with them.

In Medieval Europe the Pope was a political figure who often had to deal with political disputes between kings and other rulers. Therefore, the correct choice is B.

The League was exposed to infinite complications since it aimed to bring a universal standard to the relations of more than sixty member states “differing widely in size, in power, and in political, economic and cultural development” (Carr, 1946: 28).

After the First Morocco Crisis in 1905, the division in Europe became apparent, and alliance politics took precedence over the traditional congress system. This was made particularly clear with British fears of its own decline and the rise of Germany, particularly regarding the naval race. This opened the way for binding alliances both in Europe and abroad, starting with the Triple Entente, which caused a great fear of encirclement among German decision-makers.

The distribution of power in Europe was equalized in a sense as France and Austria were subdued by Germany.  Bismarck thought he could best protect Germany’s position by isolating France and closely monitoring Austria. To control both, Bismarck was aware that
Germany’s whole energy needed to be oriented to Europe; he needed not only to direct German foreign policy, but European politics as a whole.

The world’s first recorded international peace treaty is generally accepted to be the Treaty of Kadesh, signed in the 13th century BC between the Egyptians and the Anatolian-based Hittites, a replica of which stands on the wall of the United Nations in New York today.

Italian Fascism was similar to Nazism in terms of its anti-liberalism, anti-capitalism, antiMarxism, and ultra-nationalism. It was not, however, necessarily anti-Semitic or racist. In fact, Mussolini only adopted anti-Semitism in 1938 after his alliance with Hitler had grown stronger. The correct answer is E. 

The revolutions of 1848 effectively destroyed the absolutist regimes in Europe (except in Russia), thus ending the very basis upon which the Holy Alliance was built.

It should be noted that it is essential to separate the French Revolution into three respective periods: the revolutionary phase of 1789-1793; the revolutionary wars of 1793-1802; and the Napoleonic Wars of 1802-1815. In this sense, the correct answer is C.

It is usually stated that Klemens von Metternich of Austria was the architect of the Concert of Europe.

Niccolò Machiavelli was great interpreter of Roman ideas about civic virtue and citizenship, he believed politics was based on human action, rather than religious conviction or sentiment and did much to revive the Roman idea of virtue.