In March 1999, Czechia, Hungary, and Poland joined; in 2004 Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined; in 2009 Albania and Croatia joined; and in 2017 Montenegro did.

It carries a nationalist and populist agenda to liberate “brothers and sisters suffering under a foreign dominance” and claims the recovery of ethnic frontier groups lying outside the territory of the nation-state.

The creation of the Baghdad Pact was another significant development in the institutionalization of the Cold War insofar as it extended the goal of militarily containing the Soviet Union far into the Middle East. Established in 1955 after an agreement between Turkey and Iraq, it also included Britain, Pakistan, and Iran. As a rule, the general purpose of this pact was to prevent the spread of communism into the Middle East and keep the Soviets away from vital Middle East oil. Yet following the overthrow of anti-Soviet rule in Iraq in 1959, the Pact began to crumble. Iraq immediately left the organization, and when the US joined as an associate member, its name was changed to the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO).

The United States not pursue an appeasement policy towards Hitler’s Germany

Some countries such as Britain, Denmark, and Sweden exercised their right to ‘opt out’ and continue to use their own national currency, further undermining the creation of a full and solid monetary union. Austria, however, uses  'euro'.

In June 1942, in an attempt to divide and destroy the US fleet, the Japanese fleet moved to Midway, eleven hundred miles northwest of Pearl Harbor, while another section sailed toward the Aleutian Islands. However, the American fleet had certain advantages that became crucial in the Battle of Midway. First, the Americans had known the Japanese plans since cracking their naval code. Second, the Americans had radar, which would enable them to forecast Japanese attacks and locate Japanese targets. Third, the Americans had Midway island itself (Rich, 2003:256). On June 4, 1942, the American and Japanese navies entered into a naval battle. As the two fleets were too far from each other, they could not use their big guns or even see each other. Yet American pilots still destroyed four aircraft carriers and downed 322 Japanese planes, gaining superiority over Japanese forces in the process (Perry, et.al. 2008:840). By the end of the battle, the Americans had destroyed Japan’s heavy aircraft carriers, 7 battleships, 12 cruisers, 44 destroyers, and 234 planes (Rich, 2003:257). With the battle of Midway, Japan also seemed to lose its initiative (Perry, et.al., 2008:840). In August, American forces gained beachheads at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands before moving towards New Guinea. By February 1943 Guadalcanal was retaken by American troops, and New Guinea was recaptured by the end of that year. In October 1943, the Americans won the greatest navalmbattle of the war in the center of the Philippine archipelago (Thomson, 1990:802-803).

In his 1991 book, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Samuel P. Huntington proudly explained the reasons for the third wave of democratization around the world that had begun in the 1970s.

The Big Three then decided to prepare a plan for the post-war world order. Representatives from each country, namely British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, US Secretary of State Cordell Hull, and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, met in Moscow from October 19-30, 1943 to work on draft proposals (Rich, 2003: 276). Chaired by Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov, the Moscow Conference greatly bolstered the Soviet Union’s diplomatic reputation after its military victories against the Germans in Stalingrad and Kursk (Bell, 2011:155). It was here that the Soviets gave priority to securing a firm Western commitment to opening a second front in France. The three foreign ministers also agreed about the need to punish the Germans and separate Austria from Germany.

Intifada is an Arabic term that means “shaking off”.

This tendency to “deepen” was further advanced with the signing of the Treaty of Maastricht in February 1992. First, effective November 1, 1993, not only had the European Community become the European Union, but members of the union had also agreed on creating a single currency, the euro, and a common central bank for what would now be known as the Eurozone.

Harmer (2014: 135) states four defining characteristics of the region during the Cold War: • “First, the Cold War in Latin America was not Cold.” The state violence against political opponents was widespread. • Second, the Cold War in Latin America was characterized by revolution and counterrevolution. • Third, conflicts in Latin America during the Cold War had international, multidimensional, and transnational characteristics as the Bay of Pigs and the overthrow of Jacobo Arbenz of Guatemala illustrate the regional impact of conflicts. • Fourth, the Cold War in Latin America was underpinned by the US intervention in the region.

Initially, at the Congress of Vienna, the fundamentals of peace were determined by agreement among the four major powers, be it the Holy or Quadruple Alliance. These were Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia. In 1818, France was also granted a great power status and accepted into the European Concert. Monarchism, anti-nationalism, and antiliberalism were the main fundamentals of the post-Vienna peace. The major powers agreed to reconcile matters among themselves rather than take individual action. Diplomacy was always to take precedence over the use of force, a last resort.

The Second World War began with the German attack on Poland on September

1,1939 (Parker, 2001:21).

The German invasion of Soviet Russia in June

1941 was the greatest military operation in history.

The 3.5 million-strong invasion force consisted

of three main army groups: Army Group North

attacked from East Prussia and fought along the

Baltic coastal lands towards Leningrad; Army

Group Centre moved towards Minsk, Smolensk,

and Moscow; and Army Group South advanced

towards Ukraine. In their invasion of the Soviet

Union, German forces used the same Blitzkrieg

tactics they had employed in 1939–1940 against

Poland, France, and the Low Countries. The codename for the German invasion

was Operation Barbarossa in honor of Frederick

I, the Holy Roman Emperor who organized a

12th century crusade to liberate the holy places of

Christianity from the Muslim control. According

to Nazi propaganda, the German campaign in

Russia was of a similar character—a crusade against

a Bolshevik regime that threatened European

civilization (Roberts, 2002:18).

On March 17, 1948, in response to the Czech coup, Belgium, Britain, France, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands signed a mutual defense pact called the Treaty of Brussels.

The Kashmir Issue is a territorial conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir

Until the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941, World War II had mostly been a European war. First, the German victories against Poland, Scandinavia, the Low Countries. Second, the war spread to the Balkans, North Africa, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. The last phase started when Germans invaded the Soviet Union territory.

The Second World War was fought between two rival groups of states, Axis powers and Allied powers. The major Axis powers were Germany, Japan, and Italy while the main Allied powers, also known as Allies, were Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. "A" is the correct option.