The correct answer is A.Consequences of the Peace of Westphalia may be summarized as follows:

• First, the peace treaties were negotiated and signed by the states dominated by the rulers that were commonly accepted as sovereigns of their realms.

• Second, the physical borders of each state were recognized and commonly accepted. Therefore, each of these units represented a political entity.

• Third, each sovereign who represented a state was accepted as equal, regardless of the size of lands they ruled or the nobility o which they belonged.

• Fourth, though no international organization emerged as a body until the late 19th century, the way in which these peace accords were made initialized a method that enabled states to communicate collectively through diplomatic instruments. Thus, it is possible to assert that the Peace of Westphalia laid the foundations of collective diplomacy and established the basis of the Congress System that would help institutionalize the international environment in the following centuries.

Having studied the aims and activities of IOs, Archer has identified three types of organizations based on the relationship that these organizations aim to promote among their members. The first are those organizations that encourage cooperation among its members, who are not in conflict with one another. The second is those organizations that aim at reducing the intensity of a conflict among its members through the methods of conflict management and conflict prevention. The third is those organizations that aim at producing confrontation between its members or between its members and non-members. The functions of the UN Security Council defined under Chapter VII of the Charter exemplify this third type of organization and of the nature of relationship. As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is C. “International Organizations (IOs) that encourage cooperation among its members, who are not in conflict with one another”, “IOs that aim at reducing the intensity of a conflict among its members through the methods of conflict management and conflict prevention” and “IOs that aim at producing confrontation between its members or between its members and non-members”.

“IOs that focus on high politics are mostly concerned with international order and security” and “IOs that focus on low politics that are concerned with technical, economic, and cultural issues” are the group of organizations identified by Petland regarding their focus.

The Commission on Global Governance defines governance as “the sum of the many individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may be taken. It includes
formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest”

Collective security is a partially centralized system in that the possession of power remains diffused among states, but at the same time the use of force in the system is regulated by a central agency such as an international organization with a universal membership. In fact, “collective security is the name given by the planners of a new world order after World War I to the system for maintenance of international peace that they intended as a replacement for the system commonly known as the balance of power” (Claude, 1971: 247).

The given argument belongs to Emery Reves who also rejected the internationalist approach to order and criticized the systems of both the League of Nations and the United Nations (UN). The correct answer is C.

In March 1814, four major powers of Europe, namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria came to an agreement and signed the Treaty of Chaumont to form the coalition that would eventually defeat Napoleon.

Options A, B and C belong to the school of Power-based (Structural) theories, option D belongs to the school of Knowledge-based (Cognitive) theories. The correct option is E.

While neorealists claim that foreign policy is constrained by anarchy, neoliberals argue that international regimes, globalization, and international interdependence are important tools for managing the relations between international actors.

One of the issues that the New global governance and new multilateralism should address is the following: The first trend is the integration between national governments and international bodies. Different types of actors such as domestic constituencies, IGOs, and global civil society have cooperated on governance issues. A wide range of issues from climate change to the global financial crisis, from intellectual property rights to global trade have become a part of the agenda at all political levels. Thanks to substantial innovation and change, a variety of institutional arrangements produces different forms of multi-sector, multi-level, multi-actor and multi-polar governance. Hence, contemporary world issues may not be understood and solved by state-centric models of analysis. Choice (a) is the correct answer.

• The spontaneous cyberspace model: The Internet is beyond the reach of government control, and it is a self-governing realm of individual liberty.
• The transnational institutions and organization model: It inherently transcends national borders. As a result, most suitable institutions are transnational and quasi-private cooperatives or international organizations with treaty arrangements.
• The internet architecture and code model: Many regulatory decisions are made by communication protocols and other software about how the Internet operates.
• The national government and law model: Regulatory decisions about the Internet are made through legal regulations by national governments.
• The market regulation and economics model: Market forces are driving forces in shaping the nature of the Internet.

Therefore, choice (c) is the correct answer.

Inis L. Claude, Jr. was not among Idealist scholars who regarded collective security as an alternative system to the balance of power. He argued that the idea of collective security is “almost universally and quite definitively rejected”. This is why the correct answer is A.

The increase and diversification of international organizations (IO) in international politics is closely related to globalization which emerged as a result of the rapid changes of the 20th century. Diez and his colleagues describe globalization as a “catch-all” concept that refers to “the widespread perception of the world as merging into a shared global economic and social space, a process caused by information technologies and an increased degree of interdependency”. Globalization and interdependence are the key factors that have paved the way for global governance.

Although liberalism does not assume that war is illusory, at least it defines the
nature of international relations as a sequence of cooperation and conflict, not only as a conflictual process as Realists do. As such, in contrast to the realist perspective, liberalism takes a different stance on the role of IOs in world affairs. Since liberalism underlines the importance of cooperation between states, naturally this approach attributes a greater prominence to international organizations and considers them as essential actors of International Relations. In that respect, IOs are regarded as the “early institutions of world government.” IOs serve as a platform for states to cooperate and they provide with states and other non-state actors a formal set of rules that are necessary for managing international affairs. In this regard, IOs serve to the common good of all participating states rather than to the interests of a single most powerful state. It is believed that states choose to cooperate through international organizations, because they help to reduce the costs of managing international affairs for nation states. Therefore, states most of the time prefer to act in
line with the institutional structure of international organizations. 

Following the Battle of Waterloo, the major powers signed two separate alliance treaties consecutively, the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The former, signed on 18 September 1815, was a proclamation of the three East European monarchies, that is, the royal houses of Habsburg, Hohenzollern, and Romanov

Globalization has enabled nonstate to involve in the international and created opportunities for them to play a greater role in decision-making processes. Thus, it is a factor that promotes interdependence. 

Authoritarian or tyrannical regimes have little respect for human rights. In such a regime, a “checks and balances system” does not exist that may limit and control the power of the government. Liberal regimes, however, strive to create a democratic, open, and pluralistic society and to manage differing interests in the society like a neutral arbiter. In a liberal regime, the domestic political power is shared among several non-sovereign institutions. For most liberals, the state reflects the concerns and interests of various interest groups (pressure groups) such as the bureaucracy, the military, political parties, and other powerful elites that attempt to improve their own interests in the society. In other words, the liberal state does not mirror the interests of only one elite group or the dominant social class; it rather acts as the fair and impartial mediator between different interest groups. As such, political power is diffused among a range of institutions and a variety of actors in the society. Choice (a) is the correct answer.

For neoliberal institutionalism, international institutions refer to completely developed systems of governance for shared habits and practices of cooperation. They have rules for monitoring international actors’ behaviors. For instance, formal conflict resolution mechanisms of the United Nations (UN) such as the good offices of the UN Secretary-General and the Security Council or voluntary dispute resolution mechanisms of the World Trade Organization (WTO) illustrate this point.

Central Bank is a national organization of Turkey, which does not have a role to rule international actors' behaviours.