The only exception to the prohibition of the use of force is provided in Article 51 of the Charter. Article 51 establishes the right to self-defense of a state against armed attack. In case of armed attack, member states have the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense until the UNSC takes necessary measures.

The pacific settlement of disputes is defined as the ‘diplomatic’ instrument of the UN that aims to help conflicting parties solve their disputes through peaceful and non-coercive means. The UN employs different techniques, including mediation, good offices, special envoys and missions as well as preventive diplomacy. For instance, a UN-mediated truce ended the war between India and Pakistan in 1947. The UN also sent special envoys and missions to peacefully settle disputes. For example, the Secretary-General appointed Staffan de Mistura as the “Special Envoy for Syria” in July 2014 (UN-B). Preventive diplomacy is an approach that was originally developed by Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld to “prevent disputes from arising between parties, prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur”. 

Regional Commissions of the UN are below;

• ECA Economic Commission for Africa
• ECE Economic Commission for Europe
• ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
• ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
• ESCWA Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

A specific group of scholars known as WorldOrder-Models-Project (WOMP) scholars (such as Richard Falk, Rajni Kothari, Ali Mazrui, and Gustavo Lagos) have both elaborated on this morality and given specific cosmopolitan proposals for a more orderly world. Though they come from different backgrounds (Falk is North American, Kothari Indian, Mazrui Arabic-African, and Lagos Latin American), they have shared some specific global values such as individual autonomy, nonviolence, democratic participation, economic welfare, cultural integration, social justice, ecological balance, and peace. Moreover, Charles Beitz, a cosmopolitanist, criticized the Hobbesian or Realist morality that he calls “international skepticism” as well as the legalists’ understanding of morality, that is, “the morality of state.” The correct option is D.

B is about anarchy. 

Anarchy means the lack of an overarching authority above states in the international system. Scholars also refer to anarchy as one of the significant characteristics underlying international relations. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Non-state actors are those actors that have no governmental affiliation and that conduct transnational operations toward influencing national and international public policies in a non-violent manner. Non-state actors are generally transnational in character

The members of the V-20 group in Paris Climate Agreement negotiations: “Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Barbados, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Colombia, Comoros, Costa Rica, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, Fiji, The Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Kenya, Kiribati, Lebanon, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Morocco, Nepal, Niger, Palau, Palestine, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Senegal, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Tunisia, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Viet Nam and Yemen”

A civil initiative in Switzerland successfully created the first international regulatory organization for war: the International Committee for Relief to Wounded in 1863 that was later renamed as the International Committee of the Red Cross. 

Operational activities refer to those activities through which NGOs provide services around the world.

The main theoretical classification on the role of international relations is structured around: traditional realism, liberalism, Marxism along with constructivism, feminism, the green theory, and other integration theories.

Integration is a process “whereby political actors in several, distinct national settings are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities toward new center, whose institutions possess or demand jurisdiction over pre-existing national states”. The theoretical approaches dealing with integration focus on the development of certain policies as well as institutional and governance structures that exist above and/or beyond the nation-state level.

Functionalism is an integration theory concerning the development, role, and functioning of IOs. David Mitrany, the founding father of the functionalist theory, justifies the establishment of IOs based on their social, economic, political, and other related functions that are deemed essential for promoting the interests of nation states. The functions of IOs provide the basis for the development of common interests and cooperation among nation-states. As is also understood from the information given, the correct answer is A.

Other integration theories are federalism, neofunctionalism, intergovernmentalism / liberal-intergovernmentalism.

Federalism as an integration theory gained prominence in the post-Second World War period. Following the War, the idea of establishing a supranational political union in Europe dominated the agenda of West European nations. The rationale behind this initiative was to prevent any future wars and establish a lasting peace in Europe.

Neofunctionalism, a theory of regional integration, was developed in the 1960s and 1970s as a “moderate conceptual tool” for assessing the European integration process. Neofunctionalism expands the notions of functionalism by combining the “functionalist mechanisms” with “federalist goals,” devoting extensive self-sufficiency to “supranational” institutions.

During the political stalemate in the 1960s, neofunctionalism was highly criticized by the intergovernmentalist approach. In contrast to neofunctionalists’ stress on the role of supranational decision-making bodies in the institutional structure of IOs, prominent scholars of intergovernmentalism such as Stanley Hoffmann point to the decisive role of national/domestic politics for the integration process (Hoffmann, 1966). Intergovernmentalism and liberal intergovernmentalism consider the formation of IOs as a process of inter-state bargaining process wherein socioeconomic interests, the positions of political elite, and ideology matter to a great extent.

The definitions of the other international theories are as follows:

Realism is one of the major theories of international relations. The state-centric approach of realism is accepted as its distinctive trait, since the state is theoretically acknowledged as the main actor in international relations who follows its own interests and compete for power in the international system. Realism considers the concept of power as the ability to change and adjust the behavior of others in an anticipated way. Presuming that the state behavior is mainly shaped by the dynamics of power and security in international relations, it is hypothesized that states can maximize their self-interests by providing their own security and preserving (and even increasing) their own power.

In its debate on international affairs, liberalism focuses on the individual rather than on the state and draws its basic ethical tenets from the value of the human being. Based on the works of Adam Smith such as The Wealth of Nations and of John Locke such as The Essay Concerning Human Understanding, the liberal approach acknowledges the possibility of establishing cooperative relations between not only individuals but also nation states. Accordingly, nation states can build peaceful interstate relations especially through such issue areas as economics and trade. Although liberalism does not assume that war is illusory, at least it defines the nature of international relations as a sequence of cooperation and conflict, not only as a conflictual process as Realists do.

Marxism along with constructivism, feminism, the green theory are critical IR theories.

The Marxist approach contributes to the understanding of international relations and the role of IOs by critically assessing realism and liberalism, which are the dominant theoretical approaches to international relations. Marxism primarily focuses on the role of economic power in international affairs. Marxism criticizes capitalism as the main mode of production on the grounds that it causes inequalities among nation states and thus destabilizes the world order and increases the possibility of a conflict among states. Marxism regards IOs as tools and/or influence mechanisms of capitalism that widen the gap between the developed nations and the developing/ underdeveloped nations.

Constructivism is one of the recent prominent theories of International Relations. The constructivist approach focuses on the epistemology and sociology of knowledge as well as the agentstructure debate. The approach perceives the current world structure through the lens of “social construction of power politics”. Constructivism argues that IOs contribute to bilateral and multilateral cooperation among nation states, despite the fact that their material interests and political power may not be maximized through this cooperation.

As one of the critical theories of international relations, feminism focuses on the role of gender and gender politics in international affairs. Feminism discusses women’s possible role in, and contribution to, the decision-making and policy-making processes within IOs with regard to important issues of international affairs and global governance.

Green Theory: Today’s world is facing a rapid process of globalization that has produced complex and interdependent structures. These complex structures include economic, political, social as well as ecological issue areas where a good global governance has become a necessity. The environmental issues are no longer considered within the scope of nation states. Rather, these issues expanded and many new actors participated in managing them, including “networks of experts, environmentalist organizations and multinational corporations as well as new agencies set up by governments”. This theoretical approach suggests that today IOs play a significant role in the decision-making mechanisms that deal with environmental issues and develop “legally binding” policies negotiated and agreed upon by nation states and non-state entities. In fact, IOs help to strengthen the idea of global governance on environmental issues by reconciling processes of rule-making and rule implementation that takes place at different levels of governance, i.e. sub-national, national, supranational, and international.

The General Assembly is the main deliberative body where all members of the organization can make their voice heard. Therefore, the correct choice is D.

Hegemonic stability theory establishes a theoretical link between hegemony and systemic stability. The correct answer is A.

The role and effectiveness of the middle-range powers in global governance can be evaluated by looking at the policies of the BRICS countries, namely Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. Kolesnichenko, Razanov, and Debin, in their joint article titled “The Role of BRICS in Global Politics,” focus on the effectiveness of the BRICS countries in global governance.

The European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) was established in 1973 to represent and promote workers’ interests at the European level

The Commission on Global Governance has also given a specific definition of governance. Accordingly, “governance is the sum of many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may be taken. It includes formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest”

The Association of European Chambers of Commerce and Industry (EUROCHAMBRES) is a non-profit international organization that was established in the Conference of Chambers on February 28, 1958. EUROCHAMBRES supports theEuropeanChambers ofCommerce and Industry and plays an effective role in EU-related economic issues in order to strengthen the position and voice of the business community in EU decision-making processes. EUROCHAMBRES carries out projects to increase its effectiveness, offer better services to members and establish a European network for entrepreneurs. As an umbrella organization of the European Chambers of Commerce and Industry, EUROCHAMBRES represents over 20 million member enterprises in Europe through 46 associations of the Chambers of Commerce and Industry. 93% of its members are small and medium enterprises, and they employ over 120 million employees. Rifat Hisarcıklıoğlu, the President of the Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey (TOBB), is the Vice Chairman of the Council on the EUROCHAMBRES during the 2018-2019 term. EUROCHAMBERS plays important roles in commercial relationships between Turkey and the EU. It has been the most influential organization in the Turkey-EU negotiation process and guides EU decision makers.

Despite the rise of liberalism and nationalism in the 19th century and the dissolution of absolute monarchies, dynastic kinship still acted as a network in diplomacy. Royal family ties were still functional; international problems were regularly negotiated in royal gatherings. Monarchs were credible mediators for settling international conflicts. However, power shifted to public decision-makers within states, and the role of the royals ended.

UNESCO is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It seeks to build peace through international cooperation in Education, the Sciences and Culture. UNESCO’s programmes contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals defined in Agenda 2030, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015,” (//en.unesco.org/)

More than any other scholar, Ernst B. Haas deserves to be known as the founding father of neofunctionalism. Haas has developed the idea of regional integration through functional cooperation on ‘nonpolitical’ issues, which would in fact lead to further integration in the geographical area concerned. However, even Haas himself had second thoughts right from the beginning of his studies about both the soundness of this “spill over” theory and neofunctionalism as a promising way to world peace. The correct option is B.