In contemporary politics, religious activism as a component of conflict and opponency to the state mechanism reveals itself in two ways. Religion becomes politicized; and coversely, politics are religionized. The contradiction and asserts that the underlying cause of the global resurgence of religion in the last decades is “the secularization of the sacred that has been at the center of the process by which the civilization of the western world developed” (2005, p. 2). Within this context, the secular nation state is criticized from the religious point of view by the adherents of different religions. Nevertheless, the relationship of the nation state, religion and nationalism as an ideology is quite complex.

The ideological rivalry was an important source of conflict during the Cold War period. In the aftermath, divisions based on cultural and religious
differences immediately took the place of the ideological rivalry.

De-radicalization is a cognitive process with the goal of cutting the link between its target audience with radical ideas.

The answer is A

The answer is A.

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination is among the treaty-based bodies that support OHCHR.

The treaty based bodies that support the OHCHR are Human Right Council, Universal Periodic Review, Commission on Human Rights, Special Procedures of the Human Rights Council, and Human Rights Council Complaint Procedure.

According to Terriff, Positivism shows four connected characteristics in social sciences (Ibid: 100). First, “there is an objective truth that can be discovered.” Second, “the means of discovering that truth is reason and there is only one correct form of reasoning”. Third, “the tool of reasoning is empiricism, which enables the analyst to test propositions”. Fourth, “there can be a distinction between observer and observed”.

According to Buzan, a security complex refers to “a group of states whose primary security concerns link together sufficiently closely that their national securities cannot realistically be considered apart from one another.” The method of security complex provides a clear understanding to analyse regional security relations among states existing in the forms of well-established and stable in the developed North and of problematic and unstable in the developing South.

Economic interdependence is one of the basic arguments of the Liberal school of thought. States having adopted free trade and worked for economic integration, are in a position of win-win with the states they interact in an interdependent manner. Economic interdependence is believed to produce not only financial benefits but also bilateral/multilateral political gains.

The answer is E.

Realism points says that the international system is anarchic. It means the absence or lack of a common international authority to regulate the relationships among constituents of international system.

A second and widely discussed thesis belongs to Huntington, who claims that the history has not ended with a triumph of a particular civilization; and indeed the future conflicts are expected to occur between civilizations and would be the last chain of conflicts in modern history. Huntington categorizes the civilizations of the world into eight as Western, Sinic, Japanese, Hindu, Islam, Orthodox, Latin-American and African civilizations.

The anarcho-terrorism in Russia in the 19th century is widely regarded as the predecessor of many modern terrorist organizations. Their “success” in assassinating quite high level officials, even including a tsar himself, namely Alexander II, and even more importantly their use of dynamites which opened up a new page within the context of the methods of terrorism made them a very important case in the history of terrorism.

-Numerous examples of repressive identity politics can be given as they were implied in the Second World during the Cold War such as the USSR under the presidency of Stalin.

-Specific projects to construct a national culture based on repressive policies were implemented in China, under the name of Cultural Revolution, and in Cambodia. 

-Another specific example of the repression of the religious and ethnic identities from the 20th century involves the repression of the Turkish identity in Bulgaria during the 1980s. 

The African Union was formed in 2002.

The answer is A.

The word assassin is widely believed to be originated from the terror group active in a wide area from Iran to Syria and Egypt, led by Hasan-i Sabbah, acting with an ideological motivation derived from İsmailiyya branch of Shi’ism. Hasan-i Sabbah was widely regarded as both the propagandist of its strict sectarian stance, a military and ideological leader of its organisation, and a strategic mastermind behind selection of critical targets and capturing almost unconquerable castles and cities in order to hide its militants.

The year 1979 was a key turning point after which studies about religion’s increasing significance to international politics became a hot topic. That year witnessed not only the Revolution in Iran but also the beginning of the Soviet efforts to invade Afghanistan.

Globalization serves as promoting force for the emergence or revival of identity oriented non-state actors and on the international system as a facilitator of building ties among nations or among the groups, with shared civilizational and/ or religious identities, from different nation states.

Securitisation is a framework for security analysis developed by the Copenhagen School at the Conflict and Peace Research Institute in Copenhagen in the 1990s and can be classified as a Constructivist approach since it deals with subjective matters.