Founded in 1949, the Council of Europe aims to provide justice and international cooperation in terms of a closer unity, to promote democracy through the protection of individual freedom, political liberty, and the rule of law, and also to facilitate economic and social progress of its member states. 

Common characteristic of the Critical perspectives regarding security is that they challenge given social and political relations, and identify “ways in which they might be radically changed” (Dannreuther, 2007: 49; Mutimer, 2013: 76). 

The Zealots had both religious and ethnic motivations whereas the Assassins primarily acted with a sectarian extremism. However, some of the mentioned methods used by both are the same. Their focus on symbolic assassinations and using people’s vulnerabilities and/or utilising vulnerable people are still two quite common tactics used by many terror groups. The Assassin’s transboundary character is also a predecessor for contemporary transnational terrorist networks. The Assassins were thus, quite organized, able to control strategic strongholds, capable of influencing, manipulating and assassinating key figures, successful in defying several sieges by quite powerful states of their time, and proved to have a quite a sustainable modus operandi considering their several centuries of presence which is quite uncommon for terror groups. Thus, they are widely regarded as early experts of terror and guerrilla tactics and a key predecessor of contemporary terror groups (Daftary, 2016; Gray, 2010; McCarthy, 1973; Lockhart, 1930).

The socialist movement that became more widespread in the 1848 revolution, the Chartist movement, and the aftermath, laid the groundwork for the emergence of the Welfare state (Briggs 1961, 222; Ishay 2004, 124-126). Chartism was a working class movement, which emerged in 1836 and was most active between 1838 and 1848. The aim of the Chartists was to gain political rights and influence for the working classes. Chartism got its name from the formal petition, or People's Charter, that listed the six main aims of the movement.

Democratisation of Eastern Europe took place in the late 1980s and the subsequent collapse of the USSR in 1991 closed down the window to where most of the conflicts had been rooted in the Cold War era.

The new international order after the Cold War is, often, described as disorder because there is not as clear-cut division in international political system as it was during the previous era. For academics in international politics, this has created numerous new empirical data and new interpretations to the old, but still existing, arguments regarding the analyses of security in international politics. Neither have states in their behaviors limited themselves with the sharp division of old international security thinking. These do not, however, suggest that intellectuals and statesmen have all given up old way of security thinking and practices. They exist and are very much alive today in international politics. The end of the Cold War with the increasing globalisation has brought about changes and processes in international relations, all of which together have given additional new meanings to, and produced implications for, security in international politics. 

Table 6.1

The Internet, Social Media, Cyber Crime and Terrorism

Within the context of radicalization, violent extremism, and terrorism, the Internet, social media, messaging and video apps are used for several key purposes, such as propaganda, recruitment, planning attacks, training, and collecting financial resources for attacks. 

Ole Weaver suggests that security must be considered with a holistic sense.

The answer is D.

The Realism points out that anarchy does not necessarily refer to chaos and disorder. It means the absence or lack of a common international authority to regulate the relationships among constituents of international system. 

The Liberal views do not deny the importance and influence of international system on the behavior of states. Having said that the Liberal perspectives argue that international system is not as influential and determinant factor on states’ behavior as the power and choices of national actors and internal political systems.

The answer is A.

Table 3.2 List of Regional Organizations According to Population and Functions

A striking example of such an identity war based on strong religious, sectarian and cultural differences was the armed conflicts that emerged following the dissolution of Yugoslavia. The armed conflict between the Orthodox Serbs, Catholic Croats and Muslim Bosnians started in 1992 and came to an end in 1995 with the signing of the Dayton Agreement. During the period of conflict, Serbian forces employed systematic genocidal actions against the Muslim and Croat population including mass killings, rape and siege in order to clear the future independent state of Bosnia mainly from its Muslim population and gain authority on a larger territory. 

John Locke is a philosopher and one of the most important figures of English enlightenment. Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, John Adams, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington are called as the founding fathers.

The answer is A.

The Jewish Zealot movement is regarded as the first terrorist organization and thus, predecessor of all the terror groups. It emerged as a reaction to the Roman Empire’s rule in Palestine during its Imperial period, and its increasingly oppressive measures against the Jews and gradual loss of their autonomy within the Empire.

Regional integration provides the environment for the development of new regionalism. In other words, new regionalism is an outcome of regional integration (Obydenkova, 2006: 2, 13).

Ethnic Terrorism

Among various motivations and ideological backgrounds of radical and terrorist groups, ethnically-motivated discourse occupies an important place. Nevertheless, from the Zealots to ASALA and from IRA and ETA to PKK, it should also be noted that religious, ideological, sectarian etc. motivations were also sometimes used at the same time by terrorist groups as well as the use of different motivations over decades to varying degrees.