G20 acknowledges “the crucial role of energy in shaping the future, within different national circumstances as well as the need for persistent actions to address global challenges, including climate change and energy security.” The Group also recognizes that energy transitions are essential for the development of long-term strategies that combine economic growth and the reduction of greenhouse gases. Therefore, the correct option is E.

Option A is about G-6, C, D and E is about G-7. 

After the publication of this report, the UN requested a final report for human security from the Commission on Human Security. The Commission specified the priorities of human security as follows:

• Protecting people in violent conflict;

• Protecting people from the proliferation of arms;

• Supporting the human security of people on the move;

• Establishing human security transition funds for post-conflict situations;

• Encouraging fair trade and markets to benefit the extreme poor;

• Providing minimum living standards everywhere;

• According high priority to universal access to basic health care;

• Developing an efficient and equitable global system for patent rights;

• Empowering all people with universal basic education, through much stronger global and national efforts;

• Clarifying the need for a global human identity while respecting the freedom of individuals to have diverse identities and affiliations.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

According to Terzi (2015: 194), cyber terrorism is politically motivated, and its instrument is the terror act itself; that is, it aims at influencing the behavior of millions of people. Its intent is to create impact; it aims at intervening in our daily lives as a result of the prevention of performance. Prevention of performance results from a motion that harbors corrupting the cyber systems and hurting or threatening people in the cyber space through using the global infrastructure. As implied by this definition, the death/ injury or the threat of death/injury is not a necessary component of cyber terrorism. But the death or the injury can also be one of the potential or willful consequences of cyber terrorism.

UNECE was set up in 1947 by ECOSOC. UNECE is “one of five regional commissions of the United Nations. UNECE’s major aim is to promote pan-European economic integration” (www.unece. org). UNECE’s work on sustainable energy is designed to improve access to affordable and clean energy for all and help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the carbon footprint of the energy sector in the region. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Tactical Terror is the type that attacks government or politically attractive targets (Table 6.3). Therefore, the correct option is E.

A disagreement between Britain and Spain over the sovereignty of Gibraltar is an
international dispute rather than an international conflict.

The concept of availability refers to the presence of energy resources and sustaining the “demand and supply equilibrium” of the world energy resources. Accessibility is important for ensuring the continuous flow of energy within the technological means.  The correct answer is C.

Quasi-terrorism is skyjacking and hostage taking.

Mass Terror targets general population, revolutionary
aims to replace the existing government, cause based groups are devoted to a social or religious cause using violence, and environmental groups are dedicated to prevent harming of animals and nature.

” Proxy war may be defined as “conflicts in which a third party intervenes indirectly in order to influence the strategic outcome in favor of its preferred faction.

The Group of Seven (G-7) is a forum of the world’s seven most industrialized economies. G-6 was formed in 1975 by France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Canada was invited to join this group in 1976 that eventually created the Group of Seven. In 1998, the Russian Federation (RF) was accepted by the G-7 countries as a full member, transforming G-7 into the Group of Eight (G-8). However, in 2014, Russia was suspended from G-8 after it had annexed Crimea and created tensions with Ukraine. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Cultural violence is the use of nationalism, racism, sexism, Islamophobia, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination in the media, the arts, education, literature, films, street names, monuments, celebrating special national days and heroes, etc. to intellectually justify direct and structural violence.

Sustainability means that the requested energy can be supplied without any disruption as long as the energy is needed. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Kyoto Protocol (1997) is the main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005 and mandates cuts in carbon emissions in 2008–2012. Almost all the world’s major countries, except the United States, are participants.

“NATO’s role in energy security was first defined in 2008 at the Bucharest Summit, and since then this role has been strengthened. Energy security is a vital element of resilience and has become more important in the past years due to the new security context. Energy efficiency is important not only for logistics and cost-saving in threats of operation, but also for the environment” (NATO, 2016). The correct answer is C.

Cultural and social psychological reasons constitute the subjective reasons. Cultural reasons refer to the material practice and spiritual practice of a society. A culture that values violence or war may be given as an example for cultural reasons of terrorism. Social-psychological reasons also help explain political violence. Among these reasons, “intent detection and anger” and “expectation of revenge” stand out. Academic studies show that “intent detection” increases the anger and the aggression has the potential to cause further aggression as long as the anticipation of revenge keeps the negative thoughts in the consciousness (Taylor et al., 2007: 412453).

Therefore, one can conclude that giving voice to “malevolence” may create a potential enemy. Iran’s labeling the US as “the Great Satan” and Israel as the “Little Satan” is an example of “intent detection and anger.” On the other hand, the US list of rogue states is another example of “intent detection and anger.” Moreover, the violence that continues over a long time may provide future generations with cultural and social-psychological reasons for the continuation of a conflict, as we have observed in the case of the Palestine-Israeli conflict. As such, both “intent detection and anger” and “expectation of revenge” increase violence. In other words, violence causes violence. Therefore, the correct option is E.

In international politics, balance of power refers to a condition in which no one state predominates over others, tending to create general equilibrium and curb the hegemonic ambitions of all states. Therefore, the correct option is C

This brings us to the discussion of the concept of security dilemma. This concept refers to the situation where one nation’s efforts to enhance its security creates security concerns for another nation with any prior intention. The correct answer is A.

Kyoto Protocol (1997): is the main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005 and mandates cuts in carbon emissions in 2008–2012. Almost all the world’s major countries, except the United States, are participants. The correct option is C.