Liberalism: In its classical form, liberalism is usually seen as the dominant ideology of the Western democracies rooted in Enlightenment thought (Marshall, 1998). It is “usually identified with the philosophies of John Locke, David Hume, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, who emphasize social contract theory, a world where human beings are guided by enlightened self-interest, rationality, and free choice, and argue for the minimum intervention of the state in the
lives of individuals.

There are not such classification of real and temporary authority. On the other hand, in rational-legal authority those who possess rational-legal authority are legitimated on the basis of legally enacted rules and the right of those with authority under those rules to issue commands. A judge, a tax inspector or a military commander are obeyed because others accept the legal framework that gives them their power. Therefore the correct answer is rational-legal authority. 

In functionalist approach, society is evaluated in terms of basic needs. The state has emerged as a necessity within the society. These needs are:

1. Maintaining order: State’s most important function in a given society is maintaining order. The state holds the legitimate power in order to maintain and keep the social and political order when needed.

2. Relations with other states/governments: In a more globalized world, interrelations of the states are crucial. Economic relations require political relations. Thus, economic agreements, military agreements, diplomatic affairs and even due to compelling reasons, war might be a result for relations with other states/government.

3. Directing the system: Society is a complex social, economic and political system. Thus, the state is responsible for governing this complex system. One of the function of the state is to resolve possible problems that occur in this complex system.

Therefore, the correct option is A

Traditional authority, Charismatic authority and Rational-legal authority are listed as the types of authority. There is no such authority as a Paternalistic authority or Democratic authority. The correct answer is E.

Postmodernism, like feminism, is critical to other approaches. Postmodernism is not only effective in sociology but also in art, music, literature, culture and social sciences. Postmodernism has developed as an opposition to modernism, which emerged in the 18th century during the enlightenment period and consists of ideas, values, and hypotheses that rely on technology, knowledge, and progress.

In the most general?level, societies before the 18th century are called “traditional societies”. In the Western world, the majority of the traditional societies transformed through Enlightenment, Scientific and Political Revolutions and the Industrial Revolution, and a new society emerged. This new type of society is called “the industrial society” or “the modern society”.  In specific, the traditional societies are categories as hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies, agrarian societies and traditional states. The earliest type of societies is hunting and gathering societies, which exist since 50,000 BC to present. However, today there are only a few hunting and gathering societies in the world. This type of society consists of small numbers of people, such as 30-40 people. People are nomad and gain their livelihood from hunting, fishing, and gathering edible plants. Pastoral societies are the societies in which the gain of livelihood is based on domesticated livestock such as cattle or sheep. These societies generally live in areas which are not suitable for agriculture. These societies consist of a larger population than hunting and gathering societies. Their population varies from a few hundred people to many thousand people. Agrarian societies are the societies of small rural communities which are engaged in agriculture. They often hunt animals and gather edible plants in addition to agricultural production. Their existence period is approximately same with pastoral societies. The societies known as traditional states or non-industrial civilizations existed between 6000 BC to 19th century. The correct answer is Choice A.

According to Marshall (1998) neo-liberalism refers to “a loosely knit body of ideas which became very influential during the 1980s and which were premised upon a (slight) rethinking and a (substantial) reassertion of classical liberalism”

In power, there is an assumption of mutual relationship and a certain person or group may assert an unlimited power or have control mechanisms over others.  On the other hand, power is a concept that is merely limited to the political domain. Also, power does not always need consent or strain. Therefore, only II and III are correct. 

Generally speaking, the theories in modern sociology were inspired by the theories developed by Marx, Weber and Durkheim, the pioneers of sociology.

Charismatic authority is based on the devotion of followers or subordinates to what they define as the exceptional characteristics of a leader. The correct answer is D.

Comte used the term "sociology" for the first time.

If anyone agrees to do something with their own will, the situation might not be considered as 'power' is involved in their decision. Therefore, the correct answer is B.

Paternalism might resemble a father figure starting from the 19th century, particularly “a father from a more kindly and stable time, superimposed on
the image of a boss” (Sennett, 1980: 51). According to Sennett (1980: 51) “this picture of authority is paternalism, as high capitalism constructed it”. Paternalism is mostly seen in authoritarian regimes or where democratic values and culture are not established in a given society. The correct answer is C. 

As Weber based his analysis on ideal type, rational-legal authority is seen in developed, democratic nation-states. Therefore, this type of authority can be seen together with traditional authority in developing countries and underdeveloped countries as well.

"Historical materialism" emphasizes the importance of economic factors rather than
thoughts and values in social transformation and can be defined briefly as “embracing history from a materialist point of view”, Marx specifically focuses on production.

The "base" consists of economic structure (means of production
and relations of production) and "superstructure" consists of law, politics, religion, family and ideologies.

Marx suggests that all societies except those he called primitive communal are class societies divided into two classes: who own the means of production and those who do not.

In representative (liberal) democracy,  there are political systems where decisions a ecting a community are taken, not by its members as a whole, but by people they have elected for this purpose. The correct answer is D. 

Social classes are not clearly and obviously distinct from each other. Social mobility between social classes is possible. Social classes are not supported by legal inequalities. Religious and legal restrictions or limitations are not imposed for marriages between people from different social classes.  Social class inequalities depend on economical reasons like job, poverty, prosperity and income. 

The correct answer is B. 

Conservatism emerged as a reaction to the French Revolution and Enlightenment. It rather advocates former the social formation which was feudal and aristocratic. French Revolution and ideas emerged after the revolution, that are individualism of natural law, egalitarianism, freedom and popular sovereignty. Conservatism asserts certain social orders like feudal and aristocratic social orders, and values and archaic social institutions that are family, religion, local communities and guilds carrying moral supremacy.

The correct answer is E. The other answer choices are right about libarelism but not about conservatism.

Social structure is composed of these social actions of and the interactions among the members of the society. In other words, the social structure is the regular, permanent and stereotyped relations among the members of the society.