The sociologist, of course, is not concerned with the truth or falsity of any given religion; s/he only takes an objective look at religion (its functions, social foundations, and social consequences.) He does not study religion per se, but the effect of religious beliefs and practices on the social and cultural systems, socialization process, and personality development. More specifically, the sociologist is concerned with the myriad ways in which society and religion interact, and with profound consequences for the individual.

Anomie is related to a social situation, not to a personal state of mind. It is caused by the tension between individual interests and collective cultural conscious. According to Merton, the anomie is the product of a structural stress and caused by the existence of different levels of access to opportunity structures

The concept of cultural reproduction and habitus is produced by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002), one of the most important theoreticians of the 20th century.

Correct option is A

He saw religion as a source of social stability ( Durkheim).

He believed that religion is always shaped by economic factors (Marx).

He believed religion is a popular reaction to oppression (Marx).

He believed religion strengthens the unity of society and promotes solidarity ( Freud). 

Legitimacy does not mean any power to be ruling as means of elections or utilizing force or power of sanction; legitimacy requires the recognition through consent. Therefore, the correct option is A.

We can classify the functions of legal rules in three main categories in terms of their effects;

Oppressive: The laws might be more or less challenging. There is physical pressures at various levels in social control systems.

Facilitating: Thelawsensuretheexpectations about behaviors and make them predictable.

Ideological: As a belief system, the ideology is reflected in legal rules and it emerges,
depending on certain values.

Durkheim believes that religion strengthens the unity of society and promotes solidarity.

Civil religion is a quasireligious belief by which people display loyalty to their society often in the form of nationalism or patriotism.

In aesthetic approach, culture can be used as a name for the best, the most beautiful, or the most magnificent products of a society or civilization. Classical music, art, and literature can be articulated as the examples of this group. This approach, which regards culture as equivalent to intellectual and artistic activities and ideas, considers culture to be a synonym for high culture in the duality of high culture and popular culture. The correct answer is A.

Patriarchy means the institutionalization of male dominance over women and children in the family,and the extension of male dominance over women in society in general.

Members of technologically simple societies, Durkheim explained, do this with the totem, an object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred. The totem-perhaps an animal or an elaborate work of art- becomes the centerpiece of ritual, symbolizing the power of society to transform individuals into a powerful collectivity. In all its forms, Durkheim pointed out three major functions of religion for the operation of society:

1. Social cohesion. Religion unites people through shared symbols, values and norms. Religious doctrine and rituals establish rules of “fair play” that make organized social life possible. In this regard, religious life emphasizes both our moral and emotional ties to others
2. Social control. Every society uses religious imagery and rhetoric to promote conformity. Societies infuse many cultural norms-especially mores relating to marriage and reproduction-with religious justification. Looking beyond behavioral norms, religion confers legitimacy on the political system. In medieval Europe, in fact, monarchs claimed to rule by divine right. Few of today’s political leaders invoke religion so explicitly, but many publicly as for God’s blessing, to imply audiences that their efforts are right and just.
3. Providing meaning and purpose. Religious beliefs offer the comforting sense that the vulnerable human condition serves some greater purpose. Strengthened by such convictions, people are less likely to collapse in despair when confronted by life’s distress. For this reason, major lifecourse transitions-including birth, marriage and death- are usually marked by religious observances that enhance our spiritual awareness.

As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. The concepts in the options I, II and III are the concepts associated with the functionalist theory on religion. Other concepts in the options IV and V are as follows:

Alienation is a sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Marx to refer to the projection of human powers onto gods. Subsequently he used the term to refer to the loss of workers’ control over the nature and products of their labor

Weber’s interpretation of industrial society provides one of the earliest statements of the desacralization thesis. He claimed that industrial society is “characterized by rationalization and intellectualization and, above all, by the “disenchantment of the world”. The world is no longer charged with mystery and magic; the supernatural has been banished from society. The meanings and motives with direct action are now rational. Rational action involves a deliberate and precise calculation of the importance of alternative goals and the effectiveness of the various means for attaining chosen goals. For example, if an individual’s goal is to make money, s/he will coldly and carefully calculate the necessary initial investment and the costs involved in producing and marketing a commodity in the most economical way possible. His or her measurements will be objective: they will be based on factors that can be quantified and accurately measured. S/he will reject the means to reach that goal which cannot be proven to be effective. Rational action rejects the guidelines provided by emotion, tradition or religion. It is based on the cold, deliberate reason of the intellect, which demands that the rationale for action can only be based on the proven results.

Modern societies are open systems means that there are no religious or legal restrictions for individuals or groups that may affect moving from a class to another. Social mobility between classes is possible. Individuals’ positions in social classes do not depend on inborn and ascribed (obtained) conditions. The correct option is C.

Initially the term “cultural studies” referred to the tradition that was started in Britain by Richard Hoggart, Edward Palmer Thompson and Raymond Williams in the late 1950’s, which more recently has been carried on by the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at Birmingham University by 1964, also known as the “Birmingham School” since it was established.

Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability. On the other hand, German sociologist and political economist Max Weber believed religion was a precipitator of social change. Unlike Marx, Weber rejected the view that religion is always shaped by economic factors. Weber argued that, in some circumstances, religion can lead to social change: Although shared religious beliefs might integrate a social group, those same beliefs may have reflections which in the long term can produce changes in society.

When comparing Weber and Durkheim, one might start simply by noting that whereas Durkheim was interested in the generic notion of religion (specifically the classification of the sacred and profane), Weber was concerned with the historical and comparative importance of religions. Durkheim famously observed it to consist of a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. Weber, by contrast, declared in The Sociology of Religion that defining religion is not possible at the start of a presentation such as this. Definition can be attempted, if at all, only at the conclusion of the study. While Weber examined the consequences of the ‘economic ethics’ of the world religions, Durkheim examined the ‘elementary forms’ of religious classification, the impact of their emotional framing, how these classificatory systems were embedded in ritual practices, and finally how the ‘collective conscience’ was an essential foundation of the social.

In short, Weber’s writings on religion differ from those of Durkheim in that they concentrate on the connection between religion and social change, something to which Durkheim gave little attention. They contrast with the work of Marx, because Weber argues that religion is not necessarily a conservative force; on the contrary, religiously inspired movements have often produced dramatic social transformations. Thus, Protestanism (particularly Puritanism) was the source of the capitalistic outlook found in the modern West. The early entrepreneurs were mostly Calvinists. Their drive to succeed, which helped initiate Western economic development, was originally prompted by a desire to serve God. Material success was, for them, a sign of divine favor. For Weber, it was religion itself, embodied in the ascetic Protestantism of the Reformation, that helped to eradicate magical notions from social life and to begin a radical ‘disenchantment’ of the modern World.

As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. Options II and IV are about Weber.

Weber theorized that Calvinism fostered the Protestant ethic of hard work and asceticism and that Protestantism was an important influence on the development of capitalism. Calvinism is rooted in the concept of predestination, which means that before people are born, some of them are selected for heaven and others for hell. The correct answer is D.  

E