Argumentum ad Hominem means argument toward human; and used when the ciriticism/objection is directed against a certain individual/society in person, rather than against the opponent’s thoughts/ideas.

According to political ideas in the Bible concerning obedience, The kingship of King David is a model (although David also often sinned).

John of Paris is strictly in opposition with Aquinas’ inference that the pope ought to direct the secular ruler. He argues that the basis of the distinction between the two powers does not lie in the subject matter or ends, but only in means: each power is limited to its own appropriate means of action; the secular power uses natural means, the Church uses supernatural means. With regard to property, he argues that because a ruler has a right to judge on how to use property disputes does not make him the supreme owner of the property, and although property is acquired under the human law, it is acquired by individuals, not directly by rulers.

First systematic reflections on both how to govern and organize the society and the effects of particular policies can be traced back to the Ancient Greece.

Madhhab derives from the verb  zehab, meaning “to go”; and the literal meaning of the term is “the path to follow/the place to go to”. However, in Islamic terminology, madhahab is used to refer to the totality of the views on human relations-including forms of worship, and, views concerning the fundamentals of religious belief; mostly put forward by the authorities of the subject.

For Socrates, virtue was the most important value human beings should possess because virtue was a form of knowledge.  And only those who are the most virtuous should be in power of ruling.

According to Plato, Four elements affect the degeneration of the states: 1. disappearance of internal harmony of society, 2. violation of division of labor within the society, 3. emergence of economical class conflicts, and finally, 4. moral corruption and destruction of unity of the rulers. Democracy, however, is a chaotic atmosphere, for Plato; rather than being an order.

Asabiyyah is a fundamental factor which puts human beings into wars against one another for sovereignty and for founding dynasties and states. Thus, the correct answer is A.

The state/mulk, according to Ibn Khaldûn, is a necessary being for providing the comfort for human societies, who by nature tend towards welfare and comfort.

Political ideas in the Bible concerning obedience might be summarised as follows:
1. The human beings are usually ruled by kings or emperors. There are very few traces of republican institutions in the Bible (There is one exception: 1 Machabees 8: 14–16 is an admiring description of Roman republican government.)
2. Kings are quite often evil; and are tyrants and enemies of God. The ruled often share the bad deeds of the rulers.
3. The kingship of King David is a model (although David also often sinned).
4. Subjects must obey rulers, even the wicked. It is wrong to disobey, and especially to make any attack on the person of the ruler (2 Samuel 1:14–16).
5. But obedience to rulers is always limited by obedience to the commands of God. That
means, the supremacy and the sovereignty of God is thought as superior to any worldly rule or ruler.

The caliph, on his view, must be: 1. Just, 2. Possessing full knowledge of the shari‘ah to be skilled in independent interpretation (ijtihâd), 3. Good in overall health-especially in terms of sight, hearing and speech, 4. Physically sound and not disabled from movement, 5. Good in administration, 6. Brave and courageous enough to declare war and fight against enemies, 7. In relation with (a descendant of) the family of Quraish (ibid).

Aristotle classified the governmental types on two dimensions: The first dimension was the rightness and aim of the states. According to this measure, states were classified as being right or wrong. The second dimension was the number of people who possesses the power. There can be only one single person, there can be a minority, or there can be a majority. Thus there occur six different types: The right single person, or minority, or majority regimes and the wrong single person, or minority, or majority regimes. These types can be listed as follows (Coleman, 2000, p. 214):

• The government of a single person who aims the common good: Monarchy
• The government of a minority group who aims the common good: Aristocracy
• The government of the majority of the people which aims the common good: Politeia
• The government of a single person who targets the interests of single person: Tyranny
• The government of a minority group who aims the interests of the rich: Oligarchy
• The government of the majority of the people aiming the interests of the poor: Democracy 

For Aristotle, stability of the regimes should be ensured. He was against to the revolutionary movements. He considered revolutions as a disease. Then, the disease should be cured.

Augustine was the scholar who located the universality of Christianity instead of universality of the Roman Empire. 

Plato’s general philosophy can be considered as an introduction for his political thoughts. It always should be kept in mind that the Platonic philosophy is based on a non-egalitarian belief. His philosophy usually starts with underlining the importance of reason (logos). Therefore, he splits the being into object (material) and idea (thought). The human being has material and ideal sides. The ideal side .should govern the material side, namely the body

Legitimacy can be defined as rightfulness.

For Weber (1978) charismatic authority is the type in which the authority is believed to have unnatural superiorities or exceptional characteristics. People, according to Weber follow the charismatic figure “by virtue of his mission” and charisma sets its own limits.

Nevertheless, it has a temporary character as charisma will wane into an institution, eventually being routinized. Traditional authority, on the other hand, feeds upon customs and convention. Being a source of conservatism, this type of authority also rests on identification with owner of the authority. Occupying the foreground is not, however, the transformative capacity of the rule or the organization, but rather provision of stability and preservation of social order. Legal-rational authority, as the third type of Weber’s classification, provides a source of legitimacy on a de-personalized and formal basis.

Rawls is one of the greatest philosophers of the political philosophy in the 20th Century

In the middle ages, this strong relation between jurisprudence and politics was much emphasized by Abu’l-Hassan al-Mâwardi, who could be claimed to be the first Islamic political scientist.